Enhancing worker compliance with PPE requirements in construction sites through the use of artificial intelligence

Enhancing Worker Compliance with PPE Requirements in Construction Sites Through the Use of Artificial Intelligence Student Name Institutional Affiliation Date Abstract The construction industry remains risky for construction workers, despite its importance to the economy. Construction workers operate in a risk environment that exposes them to the possibility of injuries and even death. Despite the numerous measures to ensure compliance to PPE, construction workers have continued to disregard the established safety protocols, including using the required PPE. The availability of PPE in construction sites is not a guarantee that workers will use them. As a result, inspectors and site managers need to ensure PPE compliance among the staff. However, manual inspections can be challenging, especially when dealing with many construction workers. As a result, artificial intelligence mechanisms have been proposed as a solution to the problem. The advancement of computer vision has allowed the design of algorithms which can detect objects in images and videos. YOLO algorithm is one of the algorithms available to detect PPE items, enabling it to be customized to detect compliance. YOLO algorithm facilitates the detection of items in real-time which makes it suitable in detecting PPE compliance. Table of Contents TOC \o "1-3" \h \z \u Background PAGEREF _Toc168081440 \h 5Problem Statement PAGEREF _Toc168081441 \h 11Objectives PAGEREF _Toc168081442 \h 13PPE Compliance in Construction PAGEREF _Toc168081443 \h 15Organizational Factors PAGEREF _Toc168081444 \h 16Behavioral Factors PAGEREF _Toc168081445 \h 19Technological Factors PAGEREF _Toc168081446 \h 22Artificial Intelligence in Construction PAGEREF _Toc168081447 \h 24YOLO Algorithm PAGEREF _Toc168081448 \h 29Introduction to Object Detection PAGEREF _Toc168081449 \h 29YOLO Object Detection Algorithm PAGEREF _Toc168081450 \h 31YOLO Capabilities PAGEREF _Toc168081451 \h 32YOLO Advantages PAGEREF _Toc168081452 \h 33YOLO Disadvantages PAGEREF _Toc168081453 \h 34Yolo Applications in Various Domains PAGEREF _Toc168081454 \h 35Introduction PAGEREF _Toc168081455 \h 38Methodology Overview PAGEREF _Toc168081456 \h 38Images/Video Collection PAGEREF _Toc168081457 \h 39YOLO Implementation PAGEREF _Toc168081458 \h 41Model Development PAGEREF _Toc168081459 \h 41Architecture PAGEREF _Toc168081460 \h 41Optimization for PPE Detection PAGEREF _Toc168081461 \h 44Training Process PAGEREF _Toc168081462 \h 44Hyperparameter Tuning PAGEREF _Toc168081463 \h 45Performance of the YOLO model PAGEREF _Toc168081464 \h 49Impact of YOLO algorithm PAGEREF _Toc168081465 \h 52Benefits PAGEREF _Toc168081466 \h 52Challenges PAGEREF _Toc168081467 \h 54Recommendations PAGEREF _Toc168081468 \h 56 List of Figures TOC \h \z \c "Figure" Figure 1: An example of the architecture of YOLO. Source: Ali et al. (2022) PAGEREF _Toc168079037 \h 40 Figure 2: Architecture of single stage object detector. Source: Diwan, Anirudh & Tembhurne (2023) PAGEREF _Toc168079038 \h 42 Figure 3: Sample images from CVGH dataset: Source: Ferdous & Ahsan (2022) PAGEREF _Toc168079039 \h 43 Figure 4: The performance of different YOLO models. Source: Lo, Lin & Hung (2022) PAGEREF _Toc168079040 \h 49 Chapter 1: Introduction Background Capital projects tend to be complex hence increasing potential risks to craft workers. The nature of construction work is very risky [1] like working at heights, heavy moving parts [2], uneven terrain, high levels of noise, vibrations from machinery, airborne chemicals [3], electric cables from overhead power lines, and the risk of collapses [4]. Even the most experienced construction workers are vulnerable to injuries and in extreme cases death. Work safety is critical in the construction industry. Businesses operating in the construction industry need to prioritize the safety of their workers. Statistics from the Occupational Safety and Health Administration indicate that there were 5,486 fatal work injuries in the US in 2022 alone, which amounts to 3.7 fatalities per 100,000 full-time equivalent workers [5]. In the construction sites, the following measures can be taken to reduce hazards. Firstly, the elimination of the hazard can be done. This involves physically removing the hazard. For instance, an electrical cord that is causing a tripping hazard can be physically removed to ensure work safety. Secondly, substitution is done where a hazard can be replaced. For instance, the construction site can have fewer hazardous chemicals to reduce the risk of injuries in the case a dangerous chemical comes into contact with construction workers. Thirdly, engineering can be done to isolate individuals from the hazard. For example, building work platforms as opposed to using ladders can reduce the risk of falls for workers. The same concept can also be used to create a perimeter barrier at the area of construction for the sake of the public within the proximity of the construction site. Fourthly, administrative processes can be used to reduce the risk of hazards. A change in processes on how individuals work is critical in implementing changes needed to enhance the safety of construction workers. For instance, safety procedures can be developed, which workers are supposed to follow. Rules should be set in such a way that the workers face harsh consequences for not complying. Training of workers on safety is a critical administrative procedure that can minimize the likelihood of exposure to hazards. While it is important to put in place the above safety measures, personal protective equipment (PPE) is the last line of defense for construction workers against the various hazards that exist [6]. While there are many measures put in place to mitigate the different risks associated with construction, PPE in construction is instrumental in keeping workers safe. PPE refers to any device, item of clothing, or accessory that workers can use or wear to prevent an accident or protect themselves from a health and safety risk [7]. PPE offers an additional level of protection where other safeguards cannot remove the hazard completely [8]. It is the responsibility of construction managers to protect their workers and visitors at a construction site. Construction sites are different, hence the exact PPE needed depends largely on a thorough risk assessment and careful planning to ensure that the correct PPEs are in place [9]. PPE legislation and regulations mandate site owners and managers to demonstrate that all accessories, devices, and appliances are worn during any activity that exposes workers to hazards. For instance, vehicle operators must wear high-visibility clothing and helmets when operating vehicles or even when they are stationary [10]. Where there is a risk of aggression, workers should have PPE to protect against this. Workplace safety during construction should be emphasized as both a corporate and personal responsibility. Workers should be provided with uniforms, helmets, or body armor to reduce the risk due to aggression. At all times, appropriate PPE should be available when the construction site presents environmental risks [11]. For example, insulated or waterproof clothing should be provided when workers operate in adverse weather conditions. Sometimes, multiple types of PPE will be needed for a construction site, where each PPE is designated to protect against a particular hazard, threat, or risk. Where the risk is extremely high, more advanced PPE can be used. For instance, bodycams, panic alarms, and lone worker devices among others can be used to ensure that construction workers can call for assistance if their safety is at risk. PPE compliance in the construction industry is critical for several reasons. Firstly, it prevents injuries in construction sites. PPE is meant to offer a barrier between the worker and the hazards that are prevalent in the construction environment. For instance, safety goggles are critical in preventing workers from eye injuries from flying debris. Similarly, helmets protect construction workers against head injuries from flying objects. Workers who comply with PPE protocols reduce the risk of various injuries which saves lives. This alleviates the emotional burden of accidents on workers and their families. Secondly, PPE compliance enhances health protection for construction workers. Most of the construction sites expose workers to chemicals, harmful dust, and biological elements that have adverse effects on health when inhaled. Chemical substances used frequently in construction sites like asbestos can cause serious respiratory conditions like cancer. As a result, using respirators can protect construction workers from inhaling such toxic substances. When handling dangerous chemicals, protecting gloves can prevent skin exposure to hazardous chemicals [12]. This ensures that construction workers operate in an environment that enhances their health. Thirdly, PPE compliance ensures that site owners and managers comply with legal and regulatory standards. In a majority of countries, PPE compliance goes beyond a good practice to a mandate under the law. This means that construction workers are mandated to use PPE depending on the type of risk [13]. For instance, in the US, regulatory bodies like the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) enforce the appropriate safety standards, ensuring that construction sites use the proper PPE. When workers fail to use the recommended PPE, this can result in legal action against the site owners and managers. Non-compliance can lead to heavy fines and restrictions on business operations [14]. This can delay the construction process, making it challenging for contractors to meet strict deadlines. Moreover, PPE compliance improves job site efficiency. When workers feel that the working environment is safe, they are more likely to be focused and productive. Such workers are motivated to put in more effort and remain more engaged in their work [15]. Knowing that a site prioritizes safety assists in maintaining a high level of morale and job satisfaction. Eventually, highly motivated workers improve the efficiency of the process, which allows construction sites to meet strict deadlines. Additionally, PPE compliance reduces financial losses. When accidents and illnesses occur in construction sites, they lead to both direct and indirect costs. Direct costs emanating from medical expenses and compensation of injured workers or visitors increase the operational costs for businesses. When accidents that are preventable with PPE happen frequently, this results in more direct costs for construction owners. Indirect costs from lost productivity and increased insurance premiums increase the cost of construction. PPE compliance serves to reduce risks associated with construction sites, which then minimizes associated costs, allowing construction projects to proceed as budgeted. Further, PPE compliance prevents possible project stoppage and delays. When accidents occur during construction, work stops, which significantly delays projects as investigations are done. Clean-up activities may take some time, significantly delaying the delivery of the project. However, the use of PPE as required assists in ensuring that operations continue smoothly as scheduled. Despite the risks that dictate the importance of PPE compliance, the construction industry faces various challenges that hinder worker adherence to PPE protocols. This problem is rampant and consequently poses a greater risk in construction than in any other industry [16]. As such, every day there are reports of both fatal and non-fatal injuries in the construction sector. Several factors result in this non-compliance. These include; construction workers trivializing safety hazards, poor support from the management, workers finding it hard to adapt to different climate conditions, poor safety training, and lack of safety supervision among other reasons. Workers tend to trivialize and underestimate safety hazards hence justifying the PPE non-compliance [17]. What they fail to understand is that many unforeseen risks and safety hazards can happen at any moment as they work which is why rules require that they comply at all times. The working space may seem clear of hazards but a minor mistake such as a falling work tool can cause immense damage. While the construction management has a mandate to ensure that the workers comply, personal safety is a personal responsibility that each person should undertake without a follow-up [18]. Poor management also contributes to PPE non-compliance. The construction managers should ensure that they provide quality PPEs to workers, a safety-friendly work environment, proper training on safety hazards in the work environment, strict guidelines to adhere to before getting to the work area, and incentives to the workers who consistently comply with the use of PPE. While it is not possible to do all of the above, they should endeavor to do everything in their power to ensure adherence to the PPE rules [17]. How the management takes this matter determines the seriousness with which the workers will comply. This mostly happens in instances where the management has a responsibility to provide some of the PPEs such as helmets, and work boots since such items are expensive. To minimize expenses, they may end up purchasing low-quality PPEs or not providing them at all requiring employees to buy for themselves. Since the items are expensive, the workers may fail to have them or take too long to replace worn-out PPEs. Once the disaster strikes, it finds the workers vulnerable and exposed. Therefore, laxity of the management in the matter plays a big role in non-compliance since it communicates little or lack of importance in the requirement to comply with the use of PPE. The other challenge to PPE compliance is harsh climate conditions. By nature, PPEs in the construction industry are cumbersome and uncomfortable. They are usually made of hard and heavy materials with zero comfort. This makes the workers go loose on compliance: for example, in the case of construction workers in arid and desert areas. Such will find it hard to put on heavy helmets, coats, and boots all day long even when they know that they should. At some point, the discomfort becomes unbearable due to heat stress and skin irritation. In cold areas, the use of PPEs demands that the worker be multiple-layered [19]. This hinders the mobility and flexibility required to work effectively in a construction site. The result is partial compliance or non-compliance especially where the workers are paid per the work accomplished. In such a case, the need to perform to get higher output outweighs the caution needed to be safe. Some other weather conditions may cause practical challenges such as the need to hydrate frequently. The PPE users will therefore put them on incorrectly or skip wearing them altogether. There are instances where the workers are not or are poorly trained on how to properly use the PPE. PPE is not worn regularly hence the management should not assume that a new worker knows how to properly put it on. The onboarding process should include sessions to train workers on how to put on the PPE gear correctly. This is a best practice for a management that is committed to abiding by the safety policies. The training enhances the worker’s critical thinking to be able to go the extra mile in complying with PPE use [19]. The training also acts as an icebreaker for field workers to initiate the ‘what if’ conversations with one another. As they dialogue with one another in that way, they are motivated to comply on their own volition. Apart from the regular training, the management should go the extra mile to provide specialized training during harsh weather conditions that inform on how best to make use of the PPE during those seasons. This communicates empathy from the management to the workers making them more agreeable to the call and it also ensures they are always protected from the potential hazard as they work. Lastly, poor supervision results in PPE non-compliance. Workers need to be supervised at all times. A supervisor notes non-compliance incidences of non-compliance or a consistent rebellion against the idea of PPE. This informs on the best course of action to take. There are times that they will issue a warning, other times they listen to the complaints, and other times enforce or even terminate the worker who is consistently putting himself or herself at risk. It is important to note that some workers might have evil motives when exposing themselves to safety risks because there are instances where injuries attract lump-sum compensation [20]. The supervisors ensure that the company is always shielded against such malicious people. In cases where the cost of employing human supervisors for the task is huge, there comes a need to install and utilize YOLO devices. The devices do all the work of monitoring and only a few human labor to analyze the data when need be. YOLO devices such as CCTV cameras are configured to detect the use of helmets at a construction site [21]. Problem Statement The construction market is growing rapidly. The growth is due to the surge in the world’s population. The increase in population continues to create a demand for new and improved infrastructure like housing, roads, and public facilities among others. The United Nations projects that the global population will reach 9.7 billion by 2050 [22]. Most of the growth will be experienced in urban settings, necessitating the need for construction to meet the increasing demand [23]. Developing countries are experiencing population growth, driving the need for construction projects to accommodate the growing population. Population growth and rapid urbanization have forced governments to initiate affordable housing programs [24]. This has offered investors incentives to construct new homes. Governments are investing a lot of resources in building public infrastructure seeking to stimulate economic growth and creating job opportunities [25]. As countries work to enhance their competitiveness, the need to improve and expand infrastructure has become urgent. A report by the World Economic Forum indicates that the construction industry accounts for 13% of the world's GDP. The report further shows that the construction industry employs more than 13% of the global workforce [26]. Data from Transparency Market Research valued the global construction industry at $12.1 billion in 2022. The industry is projected to increase at a CAGR of 4.5% from 2023 to 2031 to reach $17.1 billion [24]. While the growth of the construction industry allows countries to meet their infrastructural needs, it exposes more construction workers to hazards. In the construction industry, strict adherence to PPE requirements is critical for the safety of construction workers. Nonetheless, the construction industry continues to experience a surge in injuries and deaths resulting from construction-related activities. Despite the hazards in the construction sector, compliance with PPE remains poor [26]. The regulatory mandates and safety protocols in place are inadequate to ensure PPE compliance. Traditional methods for monitoring PPE like manual inspections and audits have been frequently used to enhance PPE compliance [27]. However, such approaches are subjective, and hence prone to error. At the same time, such methods are unable to offer real-time intervention capabilities, remaining reactive. The lack of timely and reliable compliance monitoring for PPE compliance reduces the effectiveness of safety measures [28]. This exposes construction workers to increased risks, which could be mitigated through PPE compliance. As a result, there is a need for approaches that enhance real-time monitoring for PPE compliance to ensure the mitigation of hazards before they occur. Artificial intelligence (AI), especially object detection is a promising solution to PPE compliance [29]. However, the integration of AI in monitoring PPE compliance is not widely utilized despite its potential to enhance safety [30]. Objectives Due to the importance of integrating AI in the construction sector to enhance PPE compliance, this study explores the use of the You Only Look Once (YOLO) algorithm, an AI approach used for object detection. The specific aims of the study include: * Explore the application of the YOLO algorithm in detecting PPE compliance in construction sites * Establishing YOLO algorithm capabilities in terms of accuracy, speed, and reliability in the construction domain. * Outlining the performance of a YOLO model in detecting PPE compliance among construction workers. * Establishing the impact of the YOLO algorithm on construction workers' safety and health The rest of the paper is organized as follows. The second chapter is the literature review section, which examines literature related to PPE compliance and the application of technology in the construction industry. The third chapter discusses the methodologies used to gather data and analyze it. The fourth chapter encompasses the results and recommendations section and analyzes the data gathered from secondary materials to address the research objectives. The conclusion section summarizes the paper. The section on future studies indicates areas for further study, based on the limitations of this study. Chapter 2: Literature Review This chapter explores research articles that focus on PPE compliance in the construction industry. It outlines the various technologies available for enhancing PPE compliance among construction workers. PPE Compliance in Construction The hazardous nature of the activities undertaken and the environment in the construction industry necessitates workers to take precautionary measures to prevent injuries resulting from accidents. The Occupational Safety and Health Act gives guidelines on measures to protect all construction stakeholders from workplace injuries [31]. Among the most important measures to mitigate hazards in the construction sector is using Personal Protective Equipment (PPE). These comprise all devices or materials designed to keep employees safe at the workplace. They protect the head, feet, skin, ears, lungs, and eyes. PPEs are designed to protect these parts of the human body. They include safety goggles for the eye, boots for the feet, earmuffs for the ears, gloves for hands, helmets for the head, and overall coats amongst others [32]. These types of equipment limit workers' exposure to harmful chemicals, objects, tools, and risky machinery they use while working. A workplace hazard defines any potential danger that an employee may encounter in the course of duty. Given that harm in construction is almost a guarantee, OSHA carries out routine supervision to inspect and ensure that managers and workers comply with the safety requirements. OSHA categorizes hazards into safety, chemical, biological, physical, and ergonomic hazards. Each category of this classification poses unique challenges where the employee’s welfare is concerned. Safety hazards are those that may cause accidents or injuries to the workers. A good example of a safety hazard is unmarked slippery floors. Chemical hazards are those likely to be caused by the chemicals a worker is using whether in liquid, solid, or gaseous form. To be safe when using such, one needs both careful handling and compliance with the use of PPEs. Biological hazards expose the worker to infectious diseases or dangers that alter the normal functioning of the body's metabolism. Physical hazards are such as excess noise in the workplace. Ergonomic hazards increase the risk of skeletal injuries due to the lifting of heavy weights, and uncomfortable workstations. Regardless of the nature of the hazard, the employee has a personal responsibility to ensure they are safe when working [33]. The management too must safeguard their employees and there should be a safety framework guiding the use of PPE in every construction company. However, research shows that there is non-compliance when it comes to the use of PPE. Various factors influence how workers comply with PPE requirements, including organizational, behavioral, and technological factors. Organizational Factors Organizational factors play a major role in PPE compliance in the construction industry. Management's first responsibility in this matter is to provide PPE training to employees [34]. These should be done regularly either in groups or to an individual. They create awareness of the common safety hazards in the work setup, educate on how to use PPEs, and emphasize the importance of always complying with the safety rules without fail. The seriousness that managers and supervisors show during such training determines the effectiveness and productivity of the training. The trainers need to show mastery of the concepts while speaking to the workers instead of having to read from a document. The managers may invite external parties who are competent and experts in workplace safety. It makes more sense to the juniors under training. Such training should be done in a calm environment where there are no distractions. There should be the use of props, safety drills, and certification for the participants to encourage concentration and active participation during the sessions. While continuous training during the work life of an employee is necessary, the most emphasis on the training should be when the employee is first onboarded into the company. This way, the management is assured that the employee is informed of safety rules and expectations on them as they begin to work. After the intense training at the beginning of the work tenure, other regular training happens for emphasis. Once a new employee is trained during the onboarding stage of employment, they easily adapt to the safety culture in the company. The person finds an environment where other colleagues are accustomed to the safety rules. The level of safety culture plays a critical role in determining whether or not employees comply with PPE requirements. If a new member finds a firm culture of compliance, they are forced to quickly adapt. Construction companies that have robust safety culture are more likely to have a high level of PPE compliance compared to those that do not have a strong culture of safety [35]. In any organization, culture determines the beliefs, perceptions, and values that employees and the management have. An organizational culture that encourages safety is critical in ensuring that the management and employees work together to mitigate hazards [36]. A positive safety culture encourages construction managers to be proactive in enforcing PPE compliance. Similarly, employees in such an environment are motivated to adhere to the necessary safety protocols, including PPE compliance. Workers in such an environment consider safety as a shared responsibility, hence collaborate to ensure PPE compliance. When new employees join a construction company with a culture of safety, they will be assimilated into the same culture. As a result, new employees will comply with PPE protocols to uphold the organizational culture. On the contrary, organizations that have a poor safety culture are more likely to experience low adherence to PPE protocols [37]. The managers prioritize such training, the goal is to maximize profits. They do not invest in training workers concerning workplace hazards. They take such an endeavor lightly since PPE compliance has not been ingrained in their daily routines. In such a case, construction workers are likely to disregard safety rules, including PPE compliance. The managers and supervisors fail to monitor workplace behavior relating to PPE compliance. In the beginning, minor incidences occur, but they attend to them easily. A slip, a fall, a burn, or being hurt by a falling object. However, these are managed without giving much attention to the overall safety culture. The complacency goes on until the day disaster strikes, which is often too late to act [38]. When this happens, it puts everyone in a negative light; the managers, supervisors, workers, and the victim. The insurance refuses to make compensations where there was complacency in the use of PPE. The safety regulatory bodies put the company in the spotlight and the company risks withdrawal of their business permit. Overall, it is better when everyone in the construction setup complies with the use of PPE. Considering these factors, it is safe to say that the leadership in the construction industry plays a crucial role in determining the level of PPE compliance. The commitment of the top management to safety compliance sets the stage for safety in an organization. When the leadership prioritizes safety, this demonstrates to the workers that safety is valued. Evidence indicates that leadership is an imperative aspect of occupational safety in all industries [39]. In particular, transformational leadership is considered an essential part of safety-promoting leadership while passive or avoidant leadership has been shown to contribute to poor safety leadership. In particular, construction site managers hold an important role in the construction industry, since they are tasked with coordinating employees, subcontractors, and other external parties [40]. Studies have established that transformational leadership approaches among construction managers increase construction site safety performance [41]. Researchers praise transformational leadership for not only augmenting productivity and profitability but also for improving safety in the workplace [42]. Leaders who use transformational leadership tend to be more human-centered [43]. Caring and considerate site construction managers are more likely to advocate for an improvement in working conditions, including implementing safety mechanisms [44]. On the contrary, passive or avoidant leadership approaches of construction site managers have been observed to have negative implications for construction site safety climate [45]. Such leaders do not show proactive leadership behaviors and take more time to respond to urgent issues, including those touching on safety in construction sites. Passive or avoidant leaders are more likely to leave unsafe working conditions unattended, fail to correct unsafe working behavior among workers, and encourage carelessness among workers [45]. Behavioral Factors Researchers agree that more than 80% of accidents in construction sites are a result of worker's unsafe acts emanating from behavioral aspects that ignore safety [46]. They have noted that despite some construction companies diligently emphasizing the use of PPE, they still experience tragic accidents due to employees' poor behavior. A good example is the Sri Lankan construction industry, which has a high level of injuries and fatalities, especially among SME businesses. Research demonstrates that the Sri Lankan construction industry has 90% of accidents because of unsafe behavior of workers due to non-usage of PPE [47]. After investigations, work carelessness remains the primary source of harm and fatalities during construction in the industry. Advancements in health and safety are hindered by behavioral aspects. Safety behavior denotes the individual self-protective measures, which involve following safety rules and wearing the necessary protective clothes and accessories [48]. Since enough studies show that behavior accounts for most of the underlying causes of accidents in construction sites in Sri Lanka, the knowledge of how to address workers' behavior is instrumental in improving safety [49]. In particular, the risk perception of construction workers has been examined extensively to establish how it affects PPE compliance. It is critical to appreciate that construction workers undertake their duties under mentally and physically demanding conditions due to the strict schedules and deadlines. With the demand for workers to deliver projects on time, this may result in inattention, anxiety, and tension, which can lead to unsafe behaviors [50]. In such a taxing environment, the risk perception of construction workers establishes their view on PPE compliance. Still, that is not an excuse to risk one’s life. The workers should know better being the ones vulnerable to the risk factors as they work. Organizations need to educate them on this which makes training sessions facilitated by the management necessary. The training impacts their perception of the risk involved on construction sites and plays a major role in how different workers comply with PPE requirements. Construction workers who consider their environment as high risk are more likely to comply with PPE requirements [51]. Without such knowledge, they keep on living life unbothered by the dangers they are exposed to daily as they work. On the contrary, studies show that workers who consider construction as less risky are more likely to ignore PPE requirements, exposing themselves to potential hazards. The causes of unsafe workplace behavior among construction workers vary from one construction site to another. Some employees seem to lack safety awareness on the importance of using the appropriate PPE because they have never been trained [52]. The inadequate knowledge has been perpetrated by the lack of knowledge on the hazards in construction sites. Construction companies are more concerned about getting the work done, to the extent that they ignore training their workers on safety measures, especially compliance with PPE requirements. The companies fail to offer comprehensive training that focuses on PPE compliance. Due to the minimal knowledge of PPE compliance, construction workers are unable to develop safety behaviors that are necessary to enhance adherence to safety rules [53]. The inadequate understanding of safety protocols makes it challenging for construction workers to follow the requirements when handling PPE. Even where workers undergo training on PPE compliance, the lack of ongoing education leads to complacency. Working on a particular construction site for a long time can lead to a decline in PPE compliance as workers become less concerned about their safety due to familiarity. Some construction workers forget details about PPE usage over time, requiring reminders to comply with safety rules accordingly [54]. The lack of reminders increases the rate of PPE non-compliance, exposing already trained workers to safety issues. Additionally, co-workers' attitudes play a major role in shaping the behavior of construction workers. Working in a construction site that does not value PPE compliance creates a culture of non-compliance. In such an environment, peer influence causes other workers to disregard PPE requirements. Peer influence plays a major role in shaping the behavior of non-compliance, which creates a cycle of unsafe practices on the construction site. Other researches show that the relationship between the workers and the management affects their willingness to comply with workplace guidelines including the use of PPE. When the management oppresses workers they retaliate by resisting any orders from above. The manner of resistance may be aggressive or passive. Either way, when this resistance pertains to the use of PPE, the employee becomes the loser since they risk their safety. Such an environment means that communication flow is poor. The employees become unmotivated to seek help and clarify PPE matters with the management. In case the conflict is out of not feeling valued by the management, the employees become less motivated to consistently follow safety protocol. Non-compliance is also an expression of resistance to oppressive authorities [55]. It is a passive act of defiance. In such an environment, even when the management takes the initiative to conduct safety training for the employees, they intentionally refuse to engage or maximize the knowledge acquired during the training. In such an environment, enforcing strict rules relating to PPE compliance is impossible. The managers opt to go soft on the matter to avoid further drift in the strained relationship. The employees take advantage of that and become indifferent to PPE safety guidelines. Technological Factors There is a rapid advancement of technology today in all industries including the construction sector. Some of the emerging technologies in this sector include prefabrication, [56] the concept of smart homes, self-healing concrete, and unmanned aerial vehicles among others. All these technologies are necessary for the growth of the sector. However, in the rapid expansion of these technologies lies the challenge of having appropriate available PPE equipment to ensure workers comply with the set health and safety standards [57]. Each new technology that advances developments in construction businesses poses unique potential hazards to the workers in the industry. Given the limited resources in every business, there are times when managers will prioritize buying new technologies for new developments at the expense of the safety of the workers who are to implement these technologies [58]. By the time the company purchases appropriate PPEs the people working in the sector will have been already exposed to potential safety and health hazards [59]. New technology means new challenges in making new PPEs. The PPEs developed to suit the new technology may have technical limitations such as poor fittings for people of different sizes, use of poor quality materials to make the PPEs, and other reasons hurriedly [60]. When the PPE reaches the user, it may be either too loose, too tight, too heavy, or simply uncomfortable to put on while working. Employees will disregard those PPEs in anticipation that they get better ones in the future. PPEs that come with new technology may be incompatible with the existing technologies and systems [61]. A case in point is smart PPE, which requires central system connectivity. In places where such connectivity is nonexistent, the workers fail to comply. In other cases, new technology may come with PPE requirements that employees are not aware of. Unawareness means the wrong use of the PPEs, leaving the worker vulnerable to danger. Finally, the cost of new PPEs decreases the accessibility of the same. In such cases, employees continue relying on old PPEs which may be ineffective when danger strikes [62]. The other factor is the inaccuracy of the anticipated safety hazards when dealing with new technologies [63]. New technology comes with new potential dangers, which may be unanticipated. When construction workers have experience using the routinely available technologies, they automatically get used to the old PPEs since they are aware of the specific dangers that the old technology poses. This is not an automatic response to new technologies. Ignorance comes into play when using new technologies because of poor human behavior that makes the workers underestimate the potential hazards and hence ignore the use of PPE [64]. If the management in such an organization is sluggish in enforcing the safety regulations, PPE compliance equally fails, endangering the safety of workers. Technological factors have positively affected the use of PPE in the construction industry as well [20]. Artificial intelligence (AI) technologies such as automated barriers, and YOLO devices such as CCTV Cameras, auto-alarms, and sensors have simplified the work of the management teams that are invested in ensuring PPE compliance [65]. Other technologies such as autonomous robots, which work as exoskeleton appliances or wearable devices, simplify the user's work. The technology acts as a PPE in itself by protecting the user from external risk factors [66]. As autonomous exoskeletons are in direct contact with the users, these technologies have great features to ensure the personal protection of the worker [67]. They augment human operations and act as a shield against potential injuries that occur through the handling of construction equipment and as a mechanical suit against vibrations while working. These technologies have also availed the option of using smart PPE. Smart PPE works as either a great complement or a complete replacement for traditional PPE [54]. Traditional PPE is limited in fully controlling workplace accidents and injuries. Smart PPE is high-tech in nature but quite effective in curbing workplace safety hazards in the construction sector [68]. The construction sector has the highest risk factors to the workers [69] since the nature of work demands high human labor involvement who are mostly required to work manually and under pressure. Smart devices come in handy in such environments since they can give warning signals and automate defenses before the actual hazard strikes [70]. Artificial Intelligence in Construction The use of artificial intelligence in modern constructions is rampant. It is used in the management of projects in construction, planning and designing structures, quality control, supply chain management, and safety and risk management. Safety in the construction sector is a big issue since there is always a risk of falling, being hit by falling objects, electric shocks, accidental slips, tripping and spraining, and many other risks [59]. Construction companies are heavily investing in the implementation of artificial intelligence to increase safety in the sector [71]. The application of AI technology in monitoring computer vision is one such use. Despite that the construction industry requires some thorough considerations to ensure sustainability and delivery of quality results, the technology is impeccable [72]. The technologies in the industry help to mitigate behavioral risks that increase health and safety hazards in the work environment. Technologies such as machine learning come in handy when analyzing potential health and safety risks [73]. Other concepts such as wearable technology devices are effective in helping to manage the environment and keep the employees safe. They also predict and provide insights on meaningful resource allocation and viable interventions to mitigate the risks. Construction managers have also utilized the use of AI by integrating it into the YOLO technologies that enhance construction site safety by monitoring compliance with the use of PPE as per the company's regulations [74]. AI technologies use computer vision to detect any anomaly in compliance with the use of PPE as opposed to the traditional monitoring methods that were based on sensors. The computer vision systems are set to align with algorithms that can detect the presence of PPE [75]. If the system senses a worker moving around without PPE as needed, it triggers an alarm system for the relevant authority to respond. While considering YOLO technologies, there are many reasons for construction companies to consider computer-based AI vision rather than traditional sensor-based vision [76]. The former is relatively cheaper to install as compared to the sensor-based vision, which has additional expenses that do not reciprocate the Return on Investment (ROI) value. A sensor-based vision monitor also requires regular maintenance, unlike the AI YOLO devices. This increases the cost of production. Overall, monitoring is cheaper when using AI technologies to monitor PPE compliance. It is for this reason that most companies are running to AI-powered computer-based vision rather than using traditional vision sensors [77]. Traditional sensors have low efficacy and they are only effective where there are few movement activities. They become less effective in complex backgrounds. Complex background scenes result in poor detection of the PPE non-compliance cases. The AI-powered YOLO technologies on the other hand can isolate all scenes whether complex or simple and detect if the workers have adhered to the PPE rules [78]. AI cameras give a comprehensive view of an area of interest no matter the complexity of the background scenes. AI incorporates predictive detection with assistive actions in response to potential threats. This increases workplace safety since not only does the system detect, but it also triggers a response to prevent further risks through activating automated barriers [79]. The technology is also able to categorize and prioritize risks for the responders to concentrate on the non-compliance that poses a greater risk to worker’s safety. AI also allows a 360-degree deployment of detection cameras so that safety professionals are at all times informed about potential hazards that might not be obvious to everyone in the work environment [79]. The AI systems enable the safety officers to stay updated round the clock so that at no particular time of the day the workers are not being monitored for potential hazards and risk factors as they work. This proves that AI-powered YOLO technologies are effective in ensuring safety through monitoring PPE compliance in the construction industry. YOLO technologies have advanced gradually since the use of AI detectors was adopted in the construction industry. YOLO was the first MobileNet network that was adopted to operate using an algorithm that had been greatly sorted out to isolate signals that would help to detect the presence of a helmet [80]. The first version of YOLO technology was effective but it had a low accuracy. This has necessitated continuous development of the technology into more effective models. As such, YOLO has since undergone tr...