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3 pages/≈825 words
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1
Style:
APA
Subject:
Literature & Language
Type:
Essay
Language:
English (U.S.)
Document:
MS Word
Date:
Total cost:
$ 10.8
Topic:
The Characteristics of Aging, Sex Determination
Essay Instructions:
Exam 2
Reference needed below.
Gilbert, S, F. (2000). Developmental Biology. Sunderland (MA): Sinauer Associates.
3 total essays required for this exam. I know I will require additional charges.
Please cite your sources as necessary. Citations should be internal, appearing in parentheses immediately after the appropriate sentence. Do not include a bibliography. Only work which you actually cite, needs to be listed. In other words, I do not need to see references, it is assumed that the class materials are referenced.
The grade will be based on:
1. Completion. Completed both questions, answering all parts of each assignment with no less than 250 wds each essay. (generally essays will not be significantly more than 300 words each). The deduction is based upon the per cent of work completed.
2. Errors in spelling /grammar may contribute to a deduction of up to 30%., for example if the writing is such that the meaning of the sentences is obscured.
3. Facts are correct and ideas are supported with references or supported rationale. Excessive use of unsupported information will result in up to a 30% deduction.
4. The essays are clearly are informed by the textbook and the terminology and complexity represent that of the textbook. Papers that are not demonstrating the students ability to read and comprehend the assigned chapters in the textbook, will result in up to a 30% deduction
Question 1
According to the textbook, what are the specific characteristics of aging? For example, one characteristic to include is animal life cycle stage in which aging occurs. Make sure to include at least one molecular characteristic.
How do we recognize and quantify aging? Use examples to demonstrate individual characteristics of aging. For one characteristic, explain any research and the research question (you may use outside sources for this part of the question, but they are not required).
Question 2
Consider one scientist (from Aristotle to the present) who has advanced our understanding of sex determination. Summarized his/her work, evidence, importance. What is one application of this biologist's work? What, if any, aspects of the work are no longer considered valid and why?
Question 3
Argue that cancer is a disease of development. Cite the textbook. Make sure to include the theoretical relationship between cancer and stem cells.
Reference.
Gilbert, S, F. (2000). Developmental Biology. Sunderland (MA): Sinauer Associates.
http://10e(dot)devbio(dot)com/
www(dot)devbio(dot)com for textbook
Essay Sample Content Preview:
Exam 2
Question 1: The characteristics of aging.
Reading Chapter 16 helped me to understand that in general aging can be gauged multiplication and interaction of different kinds of cells in the body which then brings about new physical capacities in the organism. For example, we know that the butterfly has reached its adult stage once it has its wings. In order for the wings to develop, there are "multiple interactions between the cells at the border between the apterous-expressing cells, which become the dorsal portion of the wing, and those non-expressing cells, which become the ventral portion of the wing" ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Gilbert", "given" : "Scott F.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "chapter-number" : "16", "container-title" : "Developmental Biology", "edition" : "10th", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2000" ] ] }, "publisher" : "Sianuer Associates", "publisher-place" : "Sunderland (MA)", "title" : "Postembryonic Development: Metamorphosis, Regeneration and Aging", "type" : "chapter" }, "uris" : [ "/documents/?uuid=a081005a-d129-4a00-bad3-0c73cfb4adf6" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Gilbert, 2000b)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Gilbert, 2000b)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Gilbert, 2000b)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json" }(Gilbert, 2000b). This idea of aging is further explored in by Robert Arking ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Arking", "given" : "Robert", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "American Scientist", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2004" ] ] }, "page" : "508-515", "title" : "Aging : A Biological Perspective", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "91" }, "suppress-author" : 1, "uris" : [ "/documents/?uuid=33ee4d81-87c8-4d7c-809e-689885b7abb4" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(2004)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(2004)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(2004)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json" }(2004) in his article Aging: A Biological Perspective.
According to Arking, "aging involves the multiple deleterious biological events that accumulate in different tissues over time and gradually reduce and organism’s state of maintenance and function" ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Arking", "given" : "Robert", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "American Scientist", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2004" ] ] }, "page" : "508-515", "title" : "Aging : A Biological Perspective", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "91" }, "locator" : "508", "suppress-author" : 1, "uris" : [ "/documents/?uuid=33ee4d81-87c8-4d7c-809e-689885b7abb4" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(2004, p. 508)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(2004, p. 508)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(2004, p. 508)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json" }(2004, p. 508). Aging happens when the organism’s "energy allocations fail to make adequate [life-extending] repairs ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Arking", "given" : "Robert", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "American Scientist", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2004" ] ] }, "page" : "508-515", "title" : "Aging : A Biological Perspective", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "91" }, "locator" : "310", "uris" : [ "/documents/?uuid=33ee4d81-87c8-4d7c-809e-689885b7abb4" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Arking, 2004, p. 310)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Arking, 2004, p. 310)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Arking, 2004, p. 310)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json" }(Arking, 2004, p. 310), which means that there are biological markers which can be used to gauge the extent of aging. In the case of an the Rhodnius prolixus, a blood sucking insect, the amount of hormones in the blood can be a biomarker. Research shows that the release of the prothoracisotropic hormone initiates the process of molting ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Gilbert", "given" : "Scott F.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "chapter-number" : "16", "container-title" : "Developmental Biology", "edition" : "10th", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2000" ] ] }, "publisher" : "Sianuer Associates", "publisher-place" : "Sunderland (MA)", "title" : "Postembryonic Development: Metamorphosis, Regeneration and Aging", "type" : "chapter" }, "uris" : [ "/documents/?uuid=a081005a-d129-4a00-bad3-0c73cfb4adf6" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Gilbert, 2000b)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Gilbert, 2000b)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Gilbert, 2000b)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json" }(Gilbert, 2000b). It then stimulates the production of the ecdysone, which is then converted into the active hormone 20-hydroxyecdsone. The 20-hydroxyecdysone is released in one or more pulses which then stimulates a new stage in molting. In the first molt, there is a change in cellular commitment. Then in the next molting, differentiation occurs. The third molting, accompanied by another pulse of 20-hydroxyecdysone "commits and stimulates the epidermal cells to synthesize enzymes that digest and recycle the components of the cuticle". And so on the process goes. Hence, in the case of the Rhodnius prolixus, the more 20-hydroxyecdysone in the body, the older the insect is.
Question 2: Sex Determination.
I have often wondered in almost every country in the world, it is the women, not the men who are discriminated against. Chapter 15 ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Gilbert", "given" : "Scott F.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "chapter-number" : "15", "container-title" : "Developmental Biology", "edition" : "10th", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2000" ] ] }, "publisher" : "Sianuer Associates", "publisher-place" : "Sunderland (MA)", "title" : "Sex Determination", "type" : "chapter" }, "uris" : [ "/documents/?uuid=c6c90169-17a5-4fc1-b73a-aba53e89131b" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Gilbert, 2000c)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Gilbert, 2000c)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Gilbert, 2000c)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json" }(Gilbert, 2000c) helped me understand the biological basis for this social practice. Early in history, there were people like the Greeks who believed that Nature’s first instinct is to create males, and that females were undeveloped males. Biology seems to have corroborated this belief, as secondary sex determination shows that being female seems to be a "default" state. Through the work of Aristotle who "claimed that the goal of semen is to produce a male", scientific research has shown us that indeed, all individuals are born with the X chromosome, and that it is the presence or absence of the Y chromosome that determines the sex of the organism. Consider this circumstance: rabbits castrated prior to their determination will develop into a phenotypic female even if they do not have the XX. This is because all organisms have developed in an estrogenic environment; and without gonads the rabbits would not have enough testosterone to develop male structures.
While many scientists believed that the females have incomplete evolution, Darwin’s work shows that the creation of the male and female is a "branching chain similar to that shown by the development of the gonads. The testis is a higher form of the ovary, but the ovary and testis diverge from a common ancestor" ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Gilbert", "given" : "Scott F.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "chapter-number" : "15", "container-title" : "Developmental Biology", "edition" : "10th", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2000" ] ] }, "publisher" : "Sianuer Associates", "publisher-place" : "Sunderland (MA)", "title" : "Sex Determination", "type" : "chapter" }, "uris" : [ "/documents/?uuid=c6c90169-17a5-4fc1-b73a-aba53e89131b" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Gilbert, 2000c)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Gilbert, 2000c)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Gilbert, 2000c)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json" }(Gilbert, 2000c), otherwise, the ovary would have become extinct a long time ago. Despite the fact that the old notion about male-female development has been disproven a long time ago, the social belief that males are superior to females is far from becoming extinct.
Exam 2
Question 1: The characteristics of aging.
Reading Chapter 16 helped me to understand that in general aging can be gauged multiplication and interaction of different kinds of cells in the body which then brings about new physical capacities in the organism. For example, we know that the butterfly has reached its adult stage once it has its wings. In order for the wings to develop, there are "multiple interactions between the cells at the border between the apterous-expressing cells, which become the dorsal portion of the wing, and those non-expressing cells, which become the ventral portion of the wing" ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Gilbert", "given" : "Scott F.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "chapter-number" : "16", "container-title" : "Developmental Biology", "edition" : "10th", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2000" ] ] }, "publisher" : "Sianuer Associates", "publisher-place" : "Sunderland (MA)", "title" : "Postembryonic Development: Metamorphosis, Regeneration and Aging", "type" : "chapter" }, "uris" : [ "/documents/?uuid=a081005a-d129-4a00-bad3-0c73cfb4adf6" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Gilbert, 2000b)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Gilbert, 2000b)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Gilbert, 2000b)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json" }(Gilbert, 2000b). This idea of aging is further explored in by Robert Arking ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Arking", "given" : "Robert", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "American Scientist", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2004" ] ] }, "page" : "508-515", "title" : "Aging : A Biological Perspective", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "91" }, "suppress-author" : 1, "uris" : [ "/documents/?uuid=33ee4d81-87c8-4d7c-809e-689885b7abb4" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(2004)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(2004)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(2004)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json" }(2004) in his article Aging: A Biological Perspective.
According to Arking, "aging involves the multiple deleterious biological events that accumulate in different tissues over time and gradually reduce and organism’s state of maintenance and function" ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Arking", "given" : "Robert", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "American Scientist", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2004" ] ] }, "page" : "508-515", "title" : "Aging : A Biological Perspective", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "91" }, "locator" : "508", "suppress-author" : 1, "uris" : [ "/documents/?uuid=33ee4d81-87c8-4d7c-809e-689885b7abb4" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(2004, p. 508)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(2004, p. 508)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(2004, p. 508)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json" }(2004, p. 508). Aging happens when the organism’s "energy allocations fail to make adequate [life-extending] repairs ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Arking", "given" : "Robert", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "American Scientist", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2004" ] ] }, "page" : "508-515", "title" : "Aging : A Biological Perspective", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "91" }, "locator" : "310", "uris" : [ "/documents/?uuid=33ee4d81-87c8-4d7c-809e-689885b7abb4" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Arking, 2004, p. 310)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Arking, 2004, p. 310)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Arking, 2004, p. 310)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json" }(Arking, 2004, p. 310), which means that there are biological markers which can be used to gauge the extent of aging. In the case of an the Rhodnius prolixus, a blood sucking insect, the amount of hormones in the blood can be a biomarker. Research shows that the release of the prothoracisotropic hormone initiates the process of molting ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Gilbert", "given" : "Scott F.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "chapter-number" : "16", "container-title" : "Developmental Biology", "edition" : "10th", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2000" ] ] }, "publisher" : "Sianuer Associates", "publisher-place" : "Sunderland (MA)", "title" : "Postembryonic Development: Metamorphosis, Regeneration and Aging", "type" : "chapter" }, "uris" : [ "/documents/?uuid=a081005a-d129-4a00-bad3-0c73cfb4adf6" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Gilbert, 2000b)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Gilbert, 2000b)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Gilbert, 2000b)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json" }(Gilbert, 2000b). It then stimulates the production of the ecdysone, which is then converted into the active hormone 20-hydroxyecdsone. The 20-hydroxyecdysone is released in one or more pulses which then stimulates a new stage in molting. In the first molt, there is a change in cellular commitment. Then in the next molting, differentiation occurs. The third molting, accompanied by another pulse of 20-hydroxyecdysone "commits and stimulates the epidermal cells to synthesize enzymes that digest and recycle the components of the cuticle". And so on the process goes. Hence, in the case of the Rhodnius prolixus, the more 20-hydroxyecdysone in the body, the older the insect is.
Question 2: Sex Determi...
Question 1: The characteristics of aging.
Reading Chapter 16 helped me to understand that in general aging can be gauged multiplication and interaction of different kinds of cells in the body which then brings about new physical capacities in the organism. For example, we know that the butterfly has reached its adult stage once it has its wings. In order for the wings to develop, there are "multiple interactions between the cells at the border between the apterous-expressing cells, which become the dorsal portion of the wing, and those non-expressing cells, which become the ventral portion of the wing" ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Gilbert", "given" : "Scott F.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "chapter-number" : "16", "container-title" : "Developmental Biology", "edition" : "10th", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2000" ] ] }, "publisher" : "Sianuer Associates", "publisher-place" : "Sunderland (MA)", "title" : "Postembryonic Development: Metamorphosis, Regeneration and Aging", "type" : "chapter" }, "uris" : [ "/documents/?uuid=a081005a-d129-4a00-bad3-0c73cfb4adf6" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Gilbert, 2000b)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Gilbert, 2000b)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Gilbert, 2000b)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json" }(Gilbert, 2000b). This idea of aging is further explored in by Robert Arking ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Arking", "given" : "Robert", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "American Scientist", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2004" ] ] }, "page" : "508-515", "title" : "Aging : A Biological Perspective", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "91" }, "suppress-author" : 1, "uris" : [ "/documents/?uuid=33ee4d81-87c8-4d7c-809e-689885b7abb4" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(2004)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(2004)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(2004)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json" }(2004) in his article Aging: A Biological Perspective.
According to Arking, "aging involves the multiple deleterious biological events that accumulate in different tissues over time and gradually reduce and organism’s state of maintenance and function" ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Arking", "given" : "Robert", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "American Scientist", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2004" ] ] }, "page" : "508-515", "title" : "Aging : A Biological Perspective", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "91" }, "locator" : "508", "suppress-author" : 1, "uris" : [ "/documents/?uuid=33ee4d81-87c8-4d7c-809e-689885b7abb4" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(2004, p. 508)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(2004, p. 508)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(2004, p. 508)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json" }(2004, p. 508). Aging happens when the organism’s "energy allocations fail to make adequate [life-extending] repairs ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Arking", "given" : "Robert", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "American Scientist", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2004" ] ] }, "page" : "508-515", "title" : "Aging : A Biological Perspective", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "91" }, "locator" : "310", "uris" : [ "/documents/?uuid=33ee4d81-87c8-4d7c-809e-689885b7abb4" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Arking, 2004, p. 310)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Arking, 2004, p. 310)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Arking, 2004, p. 310)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json" }(Arking, 2004, p. 310), which means that there are biological markers which can be used to gauge the extent of aging. In the case of an the Rhodnius prolixus, a blood sucking insect, the amount of hormones in the blood can be a biomarker. Research shows that the release of the prothoracisotropic hormone initiates the process of molting ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Gilbert", "given" : "Scott F.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "chapter-number" : "16", "container-title" : "Developmental Biology", "edition" : "10th", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2000" ] ] }, "publisher" : "Sianuer Associates", "publisher-place" : "Sunderland (MA)", "title" : "Postembryonic Development: Metamorphosis, Regeneration and Aging", "type" : "chapter" }, "uris" : [ "/documents/?uuid=a081005a-d129-4a00-bad3-0c73cfb4adf6" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Gilbert, 2000b)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Gilbert, 2000b)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Gilbert, 2000b)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json" }(Gilbert, 2000b). It then stimulates the production of the ecdysone, which is then converted into the active hormone 20-hydroxyecdsone. The 20-hydroxyecdysone is released in one or more pulses which then stimulates a new stage in molting. In the first molt, there is a change in cellular commitment. Then in the next molting, differentiation occurs. The third molting, accompanied by another pulse of 20-hydroxyecdysone "commits and stimulates the epidermal cells to synthesize enzymes that digest and recycle the components of the cuticle". And so on the process goes. Hence, in the case of the Rhodnius prolixus, the more 20-hydroxyecdysone in the body, the older the insect is.
Question 2: Sex Determination.
I have often wondered in almost every country in the world, it is the women, not the men who are discriminated against. Chapter 15 ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Gilbert", "given" : "Scott F.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "chapter-number" : "15", "container-title" : "Developmental Biology", "edition" : "10th", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2000" ] ] }, "publisher" : "Sianuer Associates", "publisher-place" : "Sunderland (MA)", "title" : "Sex Determination", "type" : "chapter" }, "uris" : [ "/documents/?uuid=c6c90169-17a5-4fc1-b73a-aba53e89131b" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Gilbert, 2000c)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Gilbert, 2000c)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Gilbert, 2000c)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json" }(Gilbert, 2000c) helped me understand the biological basis for this social practice. Early in history, there were people like the Greeks who believed that Nature’s first instinct is to create males, and that females were undeveloped males. Biology seems to have corroborated this belief, as secondary sex determination shows that being female seems to be a "default" state. Through the work of Aristotle who "claimed that the goal of semen is to produce a male", scientific research has shown us that indeed, all individuals are born with the X chromosome, and that it is the presence or absence of the Y chromosome that determines the sex of the organism. Consider this circumstance: rabbits castrated prior to their determination will develop into a phenotypic female even if they do not have the XX. This is because all organisms have developed in an estrogenic environment; and without gonads the rabbits would not have enough testosterone to develop male structures.
While many scientists believed that the females have incomplete evolution, Darwin’s work shows that the creation of the male and female is a "branching chain similar to that shown by the development of the gonads. The testis is a higher form of the ovary, but the ovary and testis diverge from a common ancestor" ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Gilbert", "given" : "Scott F.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "chapter-number" : "15", "container-title" : "Developmental Biology", "edition" : "10th", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2000" ] ] }, "publisher" : "Sianuer Associates", "publisher-place" : "Sunderland (MA)", "title" : "Sex Determination", "type" : "chapter" }, "uris" : [ "/documents/?uuid=c6c90169-17a5-4fc1-b73a-aba53e89131b" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Gilbert, 2000c)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Gilbert, 2000c)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Gilbert, 2000c)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json" }(Gilbert, 2000c), otherwise, the ovary would have become extinct a long time ago. Despite the fact that the old notion about male-female development has been disproven a long time ago, the social belief that males are superior to females is far from becoming extinct.
Exam 2
Question 1: The characteristics of aging.
Reading Chapter 16 helped me to understand that in general aging can be gauged multiplication and interaction of different kinds of cells in the body which then brings about new physical capacities in the organism. For example, we know that the butterfly has reached its adult stage once it has its wings. In order for the wings to develop, there are "multiple interactions between the cells at the border between the apterous-expressing cells, which become the dorsal portion of the wing, and those non-expressing cells, which become the ventral portion of the wing" ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Gilbert", "given" : "Scott F.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "chapter-number" : "16", "container-title" : "Developmental Biology", "edition" : "10th", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2000" ] ] }, "publisher" : "Sianuer Associates", "publisher-place" : "Sunderland (MA)", "title" : "Postembryonic Development: Metamorphosis, Regeneration and Aging", "type" : "chapter" }, "uris" : [ "/documents/?uuid=a081005a-d129-4a00-bad3-0c73cfb4adf6" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Gilbert, 2000b)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Gilbert, 2000b)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Gilbert, 2000b)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json" }(Gilbert, 2000b). This idea of aging is further explored in by Robert Arking ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Arking", "given" : "Robert", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "American Scientist", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2004" ] ] }, "page" : "508-515", "title" : "Aging : A Biological Perspective", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "91" }, "suppress-author" : 1, "uris" : [ "/documents/?uuid=33ee4d81-87c8-4d7c-809e-689885b7abb4" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(2004)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(2004)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(2004)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json" }(2004) in his article Aging: A Biological Perspective.
According to Arking, "aging involves the multiple deleterious biological events that accumulate in different tissues over time and gradually reduce and organism’s state of maintenance and function" ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Arking", "given" : "Robert", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "American Scientist", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2004" ] ] }, "page" : "508-515", "title" : "Aging : A Biological Perspective", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "91" }, "locator" : "508", "suppress-author" : 1, "uris" : [ "/documents/?uuid=33ee4d81-87c8-4d7c-809e-689885b7abb4" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(2004, p. 508)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(2004, p. 508)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(2004, p. 508)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json" }(2004, p. 508). Aging happens when the organism’s "energy allocations fail to make adequate [life-extending] repairs ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Arking", "given" : "Robert", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "American Scientist", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2004" ] ] }, "page" : "508-515", "title" : "Aging : A Biological Perspective", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "91" }, "locator" : "310", "uris" : [ "/documents/?uuid=33ee4d81-87c8-4d7c-809e-689885b7abb4" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Arking, 2004, p. 310)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Arking, 2004, p. 310)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Arking, 2004, p. 310)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json" }(Arking, 2004, p. 310), which means that there are biological markers which can be used to gauge the extent of aging. In the case of an the Rhodnius prolixus, a blood sucking insect, the amount of hormones in the blood can be a biomarker. Research shows that the release of the prothoracisotropic hormone initiates the process of molting ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Gilbert", "given" : "Scott F.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "chapter-number" : "16", "container-title" : "Developmental Biology", "edition" : "10th", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2000" ] ] }, "publisher" : "Sianuer Associates", "publisher-place" : "Sunderland (MA)", "title" : "Postembryonic Development: Metamorphosis, Regeneration and Aging", "type" : "chapter" }, "uris" : [ "/documents/?uuid=a081005a-d129-4a00-bad3-0c73cfb4adf6" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Gilbert, 2000b)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Gilbert, 2000b)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Gilbert, 2000b)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json" }(Gilbert, 2000b). It then stimulates the production of the ecdysone, which is then converted into the active hormone 20-hydroxyecdsone. The 20-hydroxyecdysone is released in one or more pulses which then stimulates a new stage in molting. In the first molt, there is a change in cellular commitment. Then in the next molting, differentiation occurs. The third molting, accompanied by another pulse of 20-hydroxyecdysone "commits and stimulates the epidermal cells to synthesize enzymes that digest and recycle the components of the cuticle". And so on the process goes. Hence, in the case of the Rhodnius prolixus, the more 20-hydroxyecdysone in the body, the older the insect is.
Question 2: Sex Determi...
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