The Development of Primary and Secondary Immune Responses to an Antigen
Write a mini-review paper (at least one page for each question) to address below questions. When you cite literature in your paper, please put the cited reference into your paper.
Page 1: The development of primary and secondary immune responses to an antigen differs significantly. The primary response may take a week or more to develop fully and establish memory. The secondary response is rapid and relies on the activation of clones of memory cells. Would it not be better if clones of reactive cells were maintained regardless of prior exposure? In this way, the body could always respond rapidly to any antigen exposure. Would there be any disadvantages to this approach? Why?
Page 2: Jack and Jill were badly burned in an accident at the well and both were taken to the burn unit of the local hospital. The burns covered only a small area of skin so grafts were prepared for both patients from the skin of Jack’s thigh. Jack’s graft was successful and his burn healed completely. Jill, however, rejected the grafted skin. Explain the immune responses of both patients to these grafts. What treatments could have helped Jill to avoid rejection of her graft?
Write a mini-review paper (at least two pages for each question) to address below questions. When you cite literature in your paper, please put the cited reference into your paper.
Page 3-4: The 2018 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine is awarded to James P. Allison and Tasuku Honjo for their discovery of cancer therapy by inhibition of negative immune regulation. Please search the information from internet or literature and write a summary for each scientist’s major discovery for them to receive the Nobel Prize on medicine in 2018. How did their discovery contribute to cancer treatment?
Page 5-6: What is coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19)? How does COVID-19 spread and how can we prevent COVID-19? Please design both molecular and immunological approaches to detect COVID-19.
MICROORGANISMS AND DISEASES
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The Development of Primary and Secondary Immune Responses to an Antigen
Primary immune responses occur when antigens are exposed for the first time; some antibodies normally appear in the blood at this stage. Secondary immune responses take place when the antigens are exposed for the second time. It is usually characterized by a shorter lag time when compared to primary responses. B-cells and T-cells develop when the pathogens first activate them.
The immune system consists of biological structures that protect an organism from pathogens. The immune system only functions to detect a wide range of disease-causing microorganisms from bacteria to viruses and differentiate them from the organism's healthy tissues. Abs formed during the secondary response, comes from the memory B-cells and is normally differentiated into secondary plasma cells.
The cells are activated and will continue to stay in their host for the rest of the lifetime. The cells which are activated during the primary exposure would remain the main source of Ag if the repertoire of Abs that respond to the Ag remained static, which implies that the Abs are seen many years would be somehow identical to the Abs seen in the earlier years (Goins et al., 2010). This situation presents a great disadvantage to the host since the pathogens continue to evolve as time goes by.
Grafting of Human Tissues
The grafting of human organs or tissues from one individual to another is called transplantation. The success of the grafted tissues largely depends on the immune system of the host. There are cases where grafting can be performed, but the grafted tissues are rejected by the host's immune system.
Rejection is caused by proteins that change from one individual to another. Such proteins are called alloantigen. The alloantigen is regarded as a foreign matter by the recipient.
MHC molecules are highly polymorphic molecules; they normally trigger a response when nucleated cells are grafted. If the donor's MHC molecules are properly matched with that of the recipient, then the success rate of grafting increases. Perfect matching occurs when the donor and the recipient are related (Janeway et al., 2001). So, it could be that Jack, whose grafting was successful, was related to the donor of the tissue.
Skin can be successfully grafted between different sites on the same individual. One major cause of graft rejection is the response of the antibodies. After transplantation, the alloantibodies that existed in the blood group and the polymorphic MHC can result in rapid rejection of the transplanted organs, a possible explanation as to why Jill rejected the grafted skin (Janeway et al., 2001). In medical terms, it is indicated as hyperacute rejection. If the recipient has antibodies circulating in the body, such antibodies can lead to the rejection of vascularized grafts because they react with the antigens.
Although Jill rejected the grafted skin, clinical therapies could provide a solution to organ failure. Advances in technology made it possible to perform a clinical surgery with much precision minimizing the chances of organ failure (Janeway et al., 2001). Secondly, powerful immunosuppressive drugs have been developed; such drugs inhibit T cell activation and greatly reduce organ failure chances.
2018 Nobel Prize Winners
Cancer has claimed millions of lives all over the world. Cancerous cells cause mutation of the DNA leading to uncontrolled and abnormal growth of the cells. The mutated cells spread to other parts of the body, causing severe damage to the person infected. In the recent past, various types of therapeutic approaches have been developed by scientists. Such approaches include medical surgery, chemotherapy, and anti-cancer drug strategies.
Cancerous cells have advanced and complicated ways of breaking or hiding away from the human body's immune attacks. The cells accomplish this sophisticated process by giving out various proteins that act as brakes to T-cells and eventually slow down the immune activation. Two professors have since made major discoveries in the fight against cancer (Furukawa, 2019). Professor Honjo T and James P. Allison were jointly awarded the 2018 Nobel Prize to discover cancer therapy. Professor Honjo T. found out that there is a different type of protein that also acts as a brake but has a different operation mode.
Research has shown that anti-cancer drugs have some side effects on the human body, although they are very effective. Further investigation revealed that the drugs are effective even on late-stage cancer patients. Previously late-stage cancer could not be treated using drugs. Despite all the major scientific discoveries, cancer, which has reached an advanced stage, still poses a major problem to medical doctors since treating it is not that easy (Furukawa, 2019).
The two professors used mice as the primary animal model that showed potential for human beings. James P. Allison examined a known protein and worked as a break in the immune system CTLA 4. He went ahead and developed an antibody to CTLA 4 to prevent the immune system brake.
He postulated that the T-cells would be released and become more active, after which they would attack the cancer cells (Furukawa, 2019). The main experiment was performed in 1994, and the results were spectacular. The mice subjected to CTLA 4 drug were cured while the one under control developed very tumors.
James' study led to the conception of a new idea in the field of immunotherapy. James tested the newly invented drug on patients, so some 40 patients were subjecte...