Animal & agricultural Production Law Research Paper

Animal & agricultural production
Name Course Instructor Date
Table of Contents TOC \o "1-3" \h \z \u Introduction PAGEREF _Toc54118361 \h 3Background information PAGEREF _Toc54118362 \h 4Aims PAGEREF _Toc54118363 \h 5Literature review PAGEREF _Toc54118364 \h 6Socio-economic issues affecting production PAGEREF _Toc54118365 \h 7Sustainability PAGEREF _Toc54118366 \h 8Legal system PAGEREF _Toc54118367 \h 10Access to credit and input factors PAGEREF _Toc54118368 \h 10Land acquisition and tenure PAGEREF _Toc54118369 \h 11Protection of soil and water resources PAGEREF _Toc54118370 \h 11Marketing commodities PAGEREF _Toc54118371 \h 13Food supply PAGEREF _Toc54118372 \h 13Healthy and safety PAGEREF _Toc54118373 \h 14Methods PAGEREF _Toc54118374 \h 15Findings and discussion PAGEREF _Toc54118375 \h 16Socio-economic issues affecting animal and agricultural production PAGEREF _Toc54118376 \h 16Sustainability PAGEREF _Toc54118377 \h 17The legal system PAGEREF _Toc54118378 \h 21Access to credit and input factors PAGEREF _Toc54118379 \h 22Financing of input suppliers PAGEREF _Toc54118380 \h 24Land acquisition and tenure PAGEREF _Toc54118381 \h 25Soil and water resources PAGEREF _Toc54118382 \h 25Marketing commodities PAGEREF _Toc54118383 \h 27Food supply PAGEREF _Toc54118384 \h 28Healthy and safety PAGEREF _Toc54118385 \h 30Conclusion and recommendations PAGEREF _Toc54118386 \h 31Bibliography PAGEREF _Toc54118387 \h 33
Introduction 
Competitiveness affects the level of productivity in a market, sector, industry, country, and region where institutions, policies, technology, and natural resources have contributed towards the US animal and agricultural system is one of the most efficient in the world. Animal and agricultural production relates to the set of activities where the economic purpose is to propagate or exploit animals and plants from preparation to the sale of farm products. A robust animal and agricultural production system makes the US one of the top producers in agricultural and animal food products. The efficient and sustainable uses of resources including water, mechanization, and technology have played a crucial role in the growth of US’s food and agriculture industry. Animal production is mostly poultry and livestock, including meat and dairy.[Raymond A Jussaume. 2009. "Crisis and Opportunity: Sustainability in American Agriculture." Rural Sociology 74, no. 2: 297.]
The practice of rearing livestock and agriculture is aimed at ensuring that there is economic viability. The science of animal and agricultural production requires knowledge from diverse fields and an understanding and developing systems that generate both agricultural and animal products and are closely linked to the production conditions. Different tools and processes have been used to improve animal and agricultural production. Animals and agricultural production are sources of food, and certain characteristics are selected to get the desired products. Sustainable animal and agriculture production requires practices that ensure the efficient utilization of resources for animal and food production. The social point of view is the basis for obtaining food, and from the economic point of view, the value of the products is obtained when there is the transformation of cheap and low-value plant products into foods.[Chenchen Ren et al., "The Impact Of Farm Size On Agricultural Sustainability", Journal Of Cleaner Production 220 (2019): 359.]
Production is supported by the ecosystem, where sustainable development is about meeting the current needs without compromising the needs of future generations. To assess the sustainability of the animal and agricultural system, there are indicators that focus on the economic, environmental, and social aspects of sustainable development. However, there is also a focus on resilience in sustainability, where there is an emphasis on maintaining the function of a system. This perspective is based on the idea of maintaining the current state but also adapting to new states. Thus, sustainability can be viewed when looking at expected outcomes and adaptive capacity. The challenge for the animal and agricultural production sectors is maintaining or increasing production without causing negative environmental impacts. Modernization and governance are some of the ways that may improve production and resilience and the farm, agricultural, and livestock sectors.[Michel Duru and Olivier Therond, "Livestock System Sustainability And Resilience In Intensive Production Zones: Which Form Of Ecological Modernization?", Regional Environmental Change 15, no. 8 (2014): 2.] [Ibid, 2.]
There is a rising demand for food at a time when there is a decrease in the utilization of productive agricultural land, but the demand for animal products has also stagnated.
This is further complicated by intensive forms of agriculture that are associated with the risk of environmental degradation. There is greater demand for land use and water resources, but still, in the U.S., there is large-scale animal and agricultural production where the average size of the farms has increased and there were fewer numbers of farmers.
Background information
The lack of sustainable animal and agricultural production has resulted, in the environmental and social deterioration in areas where there is overexploitation of resources.
However, focus on changing policies, and laws that facilitate sustainability are considered to add value to the agricultural sector. The production system is closely linked with economic and environmental subsystems even agricultural development has mostly focused on maximizing economic benefits, yet there are social implications and adverse environmental impacts if there is intense animal and agricultural production.
Policies on animal and agricultural production are suitable for the market-based economy where there is the protection of property rights and extensive production systems. Policy responses that are meant to reduce the impact of animal and agricultural production require the adoption of effective practices and an understanding of how production systems are linked to sustainability. Nonetheless, there is a challenge of implementing the practices and monitoring whether there is an improvement in the quality of water, soil, and air such, as the case when there are nitrate leaching and concentrations in water sources that are prone to nitrate contamination from animal and agricultural production.
Agricultural production and land use practices are one of the main sources of nitrate contamination. Research on groundwater contamination, soil, climate, land use, topography, and land management shows that the downward movement of water is associated with high nitrate concentration in soils. Nitrate leaching from the excess use of inorganic nitrogen fertilizers and large inputs of animal manure is a growing concern in North America, where nitrate is the main cause of agricultural groundwater contaminant.Intensive agricultural crop production and Animal production are concentrated in certain geographical areas where production is viable and for economic reasons, but this also increases the risk of production affecting the groundwater quality.[G. Graham, D. M. Allen and B. Finkbeiner, "Climate Controls On Nitrate Concentration Variability In The Abbotsford-Sumas Aquifer, British Columbia, Canada", Environmental Earth Sciences 73, no. 6 (2014): 2.] [Rachel E. Gilker and Ray R. Weil. 2018. "Inorganic nitrogen losses to groundwater are minimal from two management-intensive grazing dairy farms in Maryland." Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems 33, no. 4: 348.]
Aims
The overall objective of the research is to evaluate the U.S. animal and agricultural production system
The specific aims are:
* Determine the variables that affect animal and agricultural production in the U.S.
* Analyze policies, practices, and efforts toward sustainable animal and agricultural production.
Literature review
There are a search and selection of publications on animal and agricultural production focusing on the US food agricultural industry. Articles from North America and Europe are the most common, where there are highly industrialized food and agricultural systems. Animals and agricultural production have been studied, and a diversified production is important to provide returns to the farmers and producers. The production system accommodates different crops and animals, and research on sustainability highlights how laws, practices, and policies influence sustainability efforts. Laws support sustainable agricultural production, where measures help to facilitate long-term productivity and sustainable development. Environmental conditions influence of animal and agricultural production’s sustainability, but production practices need to be considered to improve and maximize reproduction.[Elisa Morgera and Andrea Saba. "Sustainable Agricultural Production, Environmental Sustainability and Food Security: How to Frame the Legal Intervention." In Agricultural Law, p.17.]
Animal and agricultural establishments including farmers, ranchers, and businesses, seek to make a profit like other businesses, but there is a great variation in earnings from one establishment to another. Even among establishments in the same where there are similarities in terms of size and type of the products there are huge differences in efficiency, productivity, and profits.
Socio-economic issues affecting production
An increase in population is associated with a rise in the demand for food, while access to land, farm inputs, and finances affect productivity. The US farmers use technology and are among the biggest productive agricultural producers in corn, wheat, beef, pork, and lamb.
Agriculture is a major driver of food security in the U.S., and farms are increasingly large and diversified as these are more competitive and productive. Agricultural and animal production systems are important for the sustainability of economies and ecosystems. Animal and agricultural production account for a substantial share of the rural economies in the US, even as few are small-scale producers and substance farmers. In the 2000 US census approximately 21% of the US population was rural, and the nonmetropolitan areas accounted for 10% of the GDP and 15% of employment in 2001 and 2005.[Catherine J. Morrison Paul and Richard Nehring, "Product Diversification, Production Systems, and Economic Performance in U.S. Agricultural Production", Journal of Econometrics 126, no. 2 (2005): 527.] [Kathleen A. Miller and Thomas Gordon Johnson, "The Role Of Agriculture And Farm Household Diversification In The Rural Economy Of The United States", Organization For Economic Cooperation And Development, 2009, 9-10.]
There is a growing trend towards higher production without increases in animal and agricultural product margins since the factor input prices have grown more than the prices received by the producers. There is low profitability for the small-scale producers who cannot leverage the economies of scale to remain competitive like the large-scale producers. Employment in animal and agricultural production has declined time as there are big farm units that require fewer workers under mechanized production systems. The internationalization of agricultural investments creates greater partly explains the fluctuations in demand and prices as investments are closely linked with corporate preferences, and speculation meant to maximize returns from animal and agricultural production.
Sustainability
Sustainability addresses environmental health, economic profitability, and achieving social equity concerns. U.S. Code Title 7, Section 3103, further includes the efficient use of nonrenewable resources and enhancing the quality of life for farmers as part of sustainable agriculture. The sustainable agricultural production practices mainly through sustainable water management and integrated pest management. While in the past the use of pesticides and chemical fertilizers was recommended and implemented to increase agricultural food production, there have been concerns about the risks of environmental degradation and there is now more interest in the balanced use of fertilizers and the pesticides as a way to reduce worsening environmental conditions, soil fertility and human health outcomes. Besides this, improving marketing and enhancing the markets, combined with sustainable management of resources and innovation are prioritized to achieve sustainability.["National Institute of Food and Agriculture," Sustainable Agriculture Program | National Institute of Food and Agriculture, |PAGE|, accessed October 17, 2020, https://nifa.usda.gov/program/sustainable-agriculture-program)]
Sustainable development focuses on managing and conserving natural resources including integrating technological innovations and policies that ensure that human needs are met even in future generations. Thus, development is economically and socially viable, but another important thing is that there is a conservation of resources and minimal degradation of the environment. Economic viability also includes enhancing the quality of life for those who depend on animal and agricultural production. Ideally, animal and agriculture production ought not to cause environmental damages or the ecosystem, but in reality this is not the case, but policies are adopted to reduce the negative environmental impact of intensive animal and agricultural production.[Daniel El Chami, André Daccache, and Maroun El Moujabber. 2020. "How Can Sustainable Agriculture Increase Climate Resilience? A Systematic Review." Sustainability 12, no. 8: 311]
Animal and agriculture sustainability focuses on the preservation of natural resources social and human resources. In the social aspect, there is a need to understand and apply various concepts such as equity, solidarity, and social security. It is important to analyze knowledge, food security, and how people are involved in the production process. Human resources are important in sustainable agriculture and necessary for economic activity, while research and innovation help to improve productivity and the quality of life. The use of labor is minimal as the food and the agriculture industry is highly mechanized[Gilker and Weil, 348.]
With regard to the financial capital resource, sustainable animal and agriculture need to produce sufficient returns on invested capital. The production of inputs, direct marketing without intermediaries, and adding value to products in processing improve returns. Low production costs help to get more profits and support sustainability. Additionally, ensuring that agricultural activities do not endanger human health and the environment is a top priority. Intensive agriculture, the use of chemical inputs, fertilizers and mechanization has been the main form of animal and agricultural production, but this is not sustainable and there are unintended negative consequences on the environment.
Ensuring sustainable with regards to in harmony with natural resources is often cited as one of the main objectives in sustainable development, but also one of the most challenging.
This requires conserving the soil and water, plant and animal resources, without polluting the environment and using the energy inefficiently. Additionally, where possible the waste produced can be recycled on the farm and not generate pollution. Technology and machinery that increases productivity help to meet the requirements of sustainable production. A favorable legal environment and policies and access to long-term financial sources have been crucial to the competitiveness of American animal and agricultural production.
Legal system
The American legal system has influenced the growth and development of the American agriculture production system and economy by facilitating resilience and efficiency. Institutions have played an important role in the growth of agriculture where there is better access to inputs and markets as legal arrangements make this possible. The legal system further highlighted the need to improve the food security of the population, through strengthening the legal framework of food and animal production made it possible to strengthen the food production system in the US.
In animal and agricultural development there is a focus on carrying out activities based on productive, commercial, distribution, and other processes, as well as mechanized agriculture. Increasingly there is a focus on ensuring the conservation of the resources as people depend on limited food and, capital and land resources. Highly industrialized countries including the US are looking into ways to integrate big data in farming. However, in the US there is still need to address the legal protection of farming data as part of trade secrets just like intellectual property even as technology has improved access to data and information.[Luca Leone. 2017. "Addressing Big Data in EU and US Agriculture: a Legal Focus." European Food and Feed Law Review : EFFL 12, no. 6: 507-518,]
Access to credit and input factors
The banking and financial system in the US and the agricultural sector policies made it easier to access credit where there are involvement in commercial banks, but little interference from the government. The legal system facilitated lending from financial institutions including security through land mortgages and also protecting the rights of borrowers. The financial system supports and facilitates agricultural credit accessibility, which partly explains the expansion of the agricultural sector. Moreover, financial liberalization is associated with efficiency in the allocation of credit and the promotion of agricultural development. The availability of animal and agricultural resources, the efficient and rational management of resources are necessary to improve productivity and the environmental services of the farms.
Land acquisition and tenure
Access to land is critical to the success of animal and agriculture production where food is grown and there is livestock. Formal land use in rural areas has few regulations when it comes to animal and agriculture production when compared to urban land. Nonetheless, the zoning laws, planning, and land sizes limit production and the use of land for urban agriculture. Owners and private entrepreneurs work on land that they own or leases and one way to avoid land tenure disputes is through leases for animal and agriculture production. The leased and privately owned farms are much bigger in the US and highly mechanized while the federal lands and resources are meant for conservation and wildlife.
Protection of soil and water resources
There are different uses of the land including livestock and agricultural production, while there is a need to deal with residues and by-products, as well as the conservation of the soil quality and the water reserves. Increasingly, there is an emphasis on promoting soil ecosystems, recycling waste, protection, and conservation. Irrigation plays a major role in the growth of agricultural production, and maintaining high environmental standards helps to avoid using potentially polluting wastewater in irrigation. Groundwater wells in the western US, particularly California at a high risk of drying up, and there are regulations and policies on irrigation management to manage groundwater use. In California, the regulations, laws, and policies groundwater use emphasize long-term sustainability and management.[Kelly Nishikawa, "The End Of An Era: California's First Attempt To Manage Its Groundwater Resources Through Its Sustainable Groundwater Management Act And Its Impact On Almond Farmers", Environmental Claims Journal 28, no. 3 (2016): 2.]
Environmental degradation and pollution are some of the concerns when there is intensified animal and agricultural production as well as the use of chemicals. This, in turn, has an effect on the living conditions of peoples and communities, which has necessitated the adoption of policies to ensure the safety of food, which is free from contamination. As such, the US has adopted policies, practices to improve the quality of the groundwater to meet the various demands for clean and safe water. Reduction in contamination and depletion of water to below the recharge rate is partly the result of a decrease in agricultural usage. Agricultural sites remain one of the major source of water contamination besides the naturally occurring contaminant, and use of water in mining. Nonetheless, new water regulations such as the Clean Water Act Total Maximum Daily Load requirements under the Clean Water Act water quality standards are meant to improve the quality of water.[Jacob Petersen-Perlman, Sharon B. Megdal, Andrea K. Gerlak, Mike Wireman, Adriana Zuniga-Teran, and Robert G. Varady. "Critical Issues Affecting Groundwater Quality Governance and Management in the United States." Water 10, no. 6 (2018): 6.] [Ibid, 10.]
A study carried out in the US showed antibiotic-resistant bacteria in food animals are a concern that has necessitated calls for reducing antibiotic use and labeling so that consumers can make informed choices. Veterinary drug residues, hormones, and residues from soils present in food animals, and water bodies are another issue since they are likely to have a negative effect on the ecosystem and human health. Some of the highest concentrations of the residues have been found in the soil environment and while some of the microbes remain harmless, others are harmful and survive a long time. Countries such as Denmark, Norway, Finland, and Sweden have succeeded in implementing policies that have reduced agricultural antibiotic use. However, the lack of a labeling program in the US may be hampering the success of such efforts. There are important antibiotics, but there is also an increased risk of resistant microorganisms and transfer of resistance genes to the food chain and environments.[Terence J Centner. "Recent government regulations in the United States seek to ensure the effectiveness of antibiotics by limiting their agricultural use." Environment international 94 (2016):, 5..] [Centner, 2.] [Centner, 2.]
Marketing commodities
Large farms increasingly dominate the US animal and agriculture production and they are well placed to efficiently use different resources in the productive process and facilitate the improvement and growth of plants and animals. In most agricultural activities the producer is the price taker of the value of their production by participating in markets with numerous suppliers that do not individually have a significant influence on the global supply chain. The objective of achieving a sustainable system is a common feature in food and agriculture industry marketing. The U.S. market system is based on capitalism, rules and governance system, but still there is lack of perfect marketing opportunities as the large-scale producers dominate the market. Direct marketing of agricultural products is an increasingly common practice to improve profits.
Food supply
To ensure an efficient food supply chain there are few regulations limiting animals and agriculture production, but regulations on movement, marketing, handling, preparation packaging, and distribution emphasize security. Following the Covid-19 outbreak, the U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS) officials highlighted that food and agriculture and by extension, the food supply chain is considered part of the critical industry. The case for this is to prevent the possible outbreak of disease. Handling practices on animals may pose a health risk and make the food chain vulnerable to shortages in the value chain. Despite efforts to the continuous and uninterrupted food supply, there are challenges to meet consumer demand for all the different types of food products.[Jacqui Fatka, "Guidance Confirms Ag As ‘Critical’ Industry", Beef Magazine, Last modified 2020, /business/guidance-confirms-ag-critical-industry.]
Healthy and safety
Governance systems for land use and animal production are meant to ensure the health and safety of food products. Institutions affect governance and implementation of policies where oversight and enforcement are necessary to support compliance with policies, laws, and regulations. Sanctions for EPA and safe drinking act violations are some of the actions to ensure health and safety standards are adhered to in animals and agriculture production. Even as there is no uniformity in how states apply animal and agriculture production policies, and regulations, both state and federal governments highlight the importance of the U.S. food supply is safe. The European Union (EU) has more vigorous sanitation and food safety testing standards than the U.S. partly because there are coordination and enforcement of regulations laws and practices, but the U.S. is relatively safe in the domestic and international markets.
Increasingly, antimicrobial resistance is a problem that poses a health risk to animals and human beings and is closely linked with the failure of applying good practices in using antimicrobial. Bacterial susceptibility to antimicrobials, close physical contact between the animals and human beings increases, and environmental contamination with antimicrobial residues increases the risk of antimicrobial resistance. The use of antibiotics or antimicrobials in food animal production is aimed at preventing and treating diseases, improving survival, growth, and health, but has also increased the risk of antimicrobial resistance.[E.K. Silbergeld, Graham, J. and Price, L.B., 2008. Industrial food animal production, antimicrobial resistance, and human health. Annu. Rev. Public Health, 29, pp.155..] [Dina Fine Maron, Tyler JS Smith, and Keeve E. Nachman. "Restrictions on antimicrobial use in food animal production: an international regulatory and economic survey." Globalization and health 9, no. 1 (2013): 48.]
Increasingly, there are concerns that commercial-scale production systems are heavily reliant on antimicrobials, where there is exposure to the workers and consumers when there is a distribution of dairy, meat, and poultry products. One of the challenges is that there is a limited understanding of antimicrobials. In the food and agriculture industry, there are low margins and some of the meatpacking plants may not consider the biosecurity concerns including ensuring they source their meat and poultry from reliable sources. Reducing dependence on antibiotics in the food animal production system will help to reduce the transmission of antimicrobial resistance.
Methods
There is a review of research on animals and agricultural production with a focus on sustainability. There is an evaluation of the information based on the emerging themes of animal and agricultural production. Characteristics of sustainable production highlight efforts on ensuring that animal and agricultural production is economically and socially viable. The search also focuses on key trends, government policies, and laws that influence animal and agricultural production. In the literature, research specialists in different fields have focused on animal and agriculture production in the US and Europe, which differs from smallholder farming and agriculture in non-western societies.
The majority of the publications were based on the key terms “animal production”, “agricultural production”, “food system”, “agricultural policy” and sustainable agriculture. Keywords were entered into databases and relevant articles were collected. All the articles were written and published in English. Both quantitative and qualitative research articles were included and were useful to identify patterns and trends on animal and agricultural production in the US.
Findings and discussion
The outcomes highlight findings on the analysis of animal and agricultural production and assessment of production including policies. Determining actions towards the success of animal and agricultural production in achieving sustainability also offer insights on how different policies and programs are effective. Interventions include policies and programs that promote sustainable production and focus on improving productivity.[Raphael Lencucha et al., "Government Policy And Agricultural Production: A Scoping Review To Inform Research And Policy On Healthy Agricultural Commodities", Globalization And Health 16, no. 1 (2020), 8.]
Management practices for animal animals and agriculture production a focus on maximizing profits and sales unlike the case of small-s...