Conflict Studies

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Community conflict and conflict resolution
The word conflict has been derived from the Latin word ‘Confligere’; which means to Strike or attack altogether. The free online dictionary defines conflict as a state of open, often prolonged fighting, a state of disharmony between incompatible persons. The Oxford Dictionary defines conflict as a serious disagreement or argument, prolonged armed struggle, Regional conflicts on the other hand is defined as a state of mind in which a person experiences a clash of opposing feelings or needs (Freancois 2013, & Vern 2013, 20-21). The principles remain the same. This paper seeks to discuss the concept of community conflict and conflict resolution.
In the advent of different conflicts arising from border conflicts to the ideological conflicts, several initiatives have been implemented to be able to curb any possible conflicts that may lead to adverse effect to the general population. This has seen so many ideologies coming up on the best strategies to implement in case of a conflict to come up with a solution. Hence, in the body of this paper the discussion of some of the possible conflicts and the possible solutions that have been implemented to mitigate such will be discussed.
Many at times when conflicts are being resolved, many people as well as bodies employ different strategies. The most recent that is taking toll of many countries, organization as well as community to be able to resolve their problem is the employment of pluralist diplomacy (Caterino 2006, 34-35). Rioux (2013) states that, "diplomacy evolved rapidly and increased substantially in scope; the classic model was also superseded by a new paradigm that we can label pluralist diplomacy."
A common element found in all definitions of community conflict is the divergent goals and interest of two actors or parties who resort to various means in pursuit of achieving their objectives. In conflict there is no a balance or equilibrium, of powers. It is not a stable resultant because there is the pushing and pulling, the giving and taking, the process of trying to find balance between the powers. In every society there are bound to be differences of opinion on all important matters. The differences can be due to person and collective reason. When competitive individuals or groups consciously try to defeat or subordinate each other in an effort to achieve certain objectives, conflict comes into existence. There are various objects of conflict, these are: power, status, property, and other desired values in a particular culture (Dana 2001, 21-22).
The issue of conflict resolution in the past used look into war and peace issues, currently expertise in dispute resolution has mutated into several areas of social science such as trade, money, and investment; foreign assistance; scientific and cultural co-operation; technical standards and norms; and tourism and student exchanges. It is also evident that there is no area that currently is operating in isolation and does not involve international consultations. Currently with the increased need for diplomacy in so many factors that initial traditional diplomat’s currently just view from sideways when experts indulge in the negation process on their behalf. In other cases, heads of states or any appointed government leaders take the lead in the negotiations. Another unique way in which possible conflicts are foreseen amongst many nations, summit diplomacy is employed for deliberation on the issue as most countries heads of states present their policies on these issues of concerns.
Hence, before we see some of the ways in which conflicts resolution has been implemented to solve community and international issues, a concept that needs to be understood is conflict resolution. When different parties converge to deliberate on vital issues through arguments, these are natural scenarios which are important amongst us to be able to understand each other. Hence, conflict resolution is the way in which the concerned parties find a peaceful solution to a misunderstanding among them. The misunderstanding may be personal, political, emotional or financial. Usually, the main aim of deliberation when dispute arises is to resolve the disparity (Groups 2004, 24-25). The main purposes of dialogue are:
1 To come up with a solution that is common to all parties concerned.
2 To improve, not hurt the amity between the parties in conflicts.
3 To Work promptly to find a solution that ends the conflict
Through different means people learn and understand situations more, the knowledge and consciousness of one`s surrounding is referred to as awareness. Such Awareness creates a tension between persons who have different views with regards to the knowledge they have and what their opinion is. This then creates the structure of conflict. Awareness is the first theoretical element in this structure. The structure of conflict is the disposition or probability of conflict occurring. Along with awareness, it includes opposing ideas between persons (Ramsbotham Woodhouse & Miall 2011, 34-35).
Persons have differing attitudes which express their wants/goals and the means to achieve them. Within the structure of conflict these attitudes are inactive; they are independent ideas waiting for stimulation. Moreover, attitudes are clustered into particular patterns which lie along the components of sociocultural space. These attitudes are involved with wealth, politics, power, and so on. Therefore, the differences and similarities between persons and their attitudes are along these components. And it follows, then, that the distances between persons, their attitudes and these components contain these differences in attitudes (Freancois & Vern 2013, 23-24).
Most conflicts resolved through diplomacy can be acceptable to all concerned parties. Often, each side will get a chance to air their grievances. This encourages a solution that will be mutual to both parties.
Diplomacy as conflict resolution method
Even though diplomacy is not the only way to solve conflicts, its success saw the emergence of diplomacy as the better option to solve conflicts both at community, national and international level. Diplomacy was derived from the Greek who used to practice diplomatic relations to come up with solutions such as negotiated allies, impartiality pledges, and truces in their ongoing rivalries.
In the current age, the media has liberalized the diplomatic opinion such that public opinion is also valued when dispensing diplomacy as a tactic to conflict resolution. This has encouraged the emergence of civil society groups, opinion polls that make political leaders and diplomats being more accountable to them. This has also influenced ways of dispensing foreign policy.
Changes that have been witnessed in dispensing diplomacy
* Pluralist diplomacy
This was a change witnessed in diplomacy where other sectors of the economy categorizes them into money, investment, foreign assistance, scientific and cultural co-operation; technical standards and norms; and tourism and students exchanges. All this have seen the implementation of diplomacy to ensure their success. Currently there is no domain that has not witnessed negotiations. This is mostly seen when public opinion weighs on the issue. Hence, pluralist diplomacy has seen changes such that it’s no longer leaders that spearhead most negotiations but unions for example; labor unions want to be on trade liberalization negotiation teams (Rioux 2013, 286)
* Summit diplomacy
This is an example of diplomacy where heads of states converge to deliberate on international multilateral and bilateral issues; the most recent being the G7/G8 and G20 summit. This has encouraged adoption of democracy that expressed value for opinions, policies in the world forefront.
* Treaty negotiations
In the past most diplomats used to argue on issues that would favor their governments without respect to mutual gains. Currently, pacts that have been implemented have shown value for the general public law. This version of diplomacy has grown since World War II, which was enhanced with the creation of an interdependent world society and its trade, economic assistance, human cooperation and environmental components. Although the original ideology that diplomats work for their governments but to an extent of respecting the other party’s interests.
* Track II diplomacy/Citizen diplomacy
The main idea behind this version of diplomacy is the inclusion of non-diplomats in the negotiation process. Even though these same people might still be agitating for their government’s interests, they are given the free will to try on new ideologies with an intention to reaching an agreeable solution. Citizen diplomacy generally accommodates divergent views through brainstorming, expressing feelings, or enabling reconciliation initiatives. Track II diplomacy is usually considered the best especially if the negotiating team that emanate from authoritarian governments where the chosen representatives are always government-endorsed elites such as local politicians, religious leaders, business people, community leaders, academics and journalists (Rioux 2013, 287).
Negotiated peace settlements
Negotiated peace settlement is also another way to solve conflict resolution among community members or nations. It has also witnessed a lot of changes that in the manner in which it is dispensed currently to see a lasting peace between the involved entities.
Vae Victis
Through history, most conflicts have been solved through military intervention where the winner takes it all. This was characterized by slavery and manipulation where the victors could dispense harsh penalties against their aggressor. And such harsh penalties were viewed as rewards for the victor. Such acts were seen up to the twentieth century were the losers could witness such ordeals as rape, passionate killings, renouncing of faith and adopt the victor’s creed, slavery (Rioux 2013, 295)
Landmark peace agreement
Although this type of pact was uncommon, it was majorly considered when the concerned parties reached a stalemate and viewed ending the war as more profitable than its continuation.
One known peace agreement that is appreciated up to date was the 1648 peace of Westphalia; it was an agreement that was signed between the winners and the losers of a thirty years war. This pact robbed off the powers of the emperor and saw the emergence of new nations and kingdoms. The peace deal entailed the demarcation of borders to avoid future aggression. Walls were erected to mark these borders and nations. Although, despite the peace agreements, such agreements did not last since most of the aggressors who lost the war could betray the pact and try to regain its lost ground. This was majorly encouraged with the continuous military presence in these states or nations. Despite the agreement deals made, the losers could still surfer some setbacks, since the winner could still impose other rules on them such as hefty compensations, supply of army personnel, abandonment of already occupied colonies, keeping of their armed forces to a minimum (Mayer 2010, 43-44)
Although some of the changes were influenced by the Americans who after the World War II, did not impose any policy or reign on their aggressors but instead financed the reconstruction of the Axis powers with an idea to avoid any future wars and prevent these countries from becoming communists. This has been seen even today where reconstruction and peace building efforts are carried out where there has been an armed conflict.
Some of the reason why there has been an increase in negotiated settlements are; wars are expensive, the cost of armaments, transportation, and facilities are astronomical weapon systems are very complex and need to be upgraded very often, also currently most soldiers are professionals rather than the past conscripted and volunteers thus they need to be highly paid as well as compensated for the risks they undergo. Being an occupation nowadays, military employees also compete for better remuneration to be able to attract young recruit into the profession.
The change in the way in which negotiated agreement are being carried are also because of the appreciation for human life. Rioux (2013) states that, "the growth of humanism and individualism has meant that the intrinsic value of human life has risen independently of demographic in the western world a situation that is unlikely to decrease."
With the tactical change in international relations and diplomacy, peace treaties are more prevalent since most great powers prefer a fast and diplomatic solution to interstate wars since there are possibilities that the war might encourage possible military retaliation not only from the country itself.
With the formation of United Nations as well as other international organizations, this has seen such bodies take over to mediate between party states and encourage peaceful coexistence. According to Rioux (2013), "war is no longer seen as inescapable but as a social behavior that, to a degree, can be mitigated and avoided." This is because most conflicts can nowadays be easily solved by introducing a third party that has no interest in the course of conflict.
Conflict resolution for intrastate wars
Most of the wars that occur within states have been hard to resolve or mitigate. Mostly they have always bee...