Religious Impact on Women's Reproductive Solutions in the 19th Century

WOMEN’S REPRODUCTIVE SOLUTIONS
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Religious Impact on Women’s Reproductive Solutions in the 19th Century
Introduction
Religion had a negative impact on women’s reproductive solutions during the 19th century. Historically, such problem was rooted in religious assumptions regarding sexuality and gender (Ruether, 2006). Arousell and Carlbom (2016) argue that the impact of both culture and religion on reproductive and sexual behavior as well as healthcare utilization is widely recognized in contemporary studies. Some of the studies hold that religious impact on women’s reproductive solutions reflects reproductive and sexual health outcomes (Arousell & Carlbom, 2016). Particularly, religion affiliation had a great influence on various reproductive issues including abortion, contraception, and anesthetic usage. However, there is limited literature about the influence of religion on women’s views regarding reproductive solutions. This study examines the impact of religion on women’s views about reproductive solutions, including contraceptive use, abortion, and anesthetic usage during the 19th century.
Analysis
Religion has had a negative impact on women’s reproductive and sexual health outcomes during the 19th century. According to Arousell and Carlbom (2016), the disparities in women’s reproductive and sexual health outcomes can be partly attributed to religious influences. Examining the social conditions and intellectual debates that influenced the construction of women’s role and sexuality, Castuera (2017) found that both the church history and the Bible were the key sources influencing Christian perception on sexuality. For instance, Christian authority had a great influence on the abortion debate in the U.S. Castuera (2017) further argues that “dogmatism and ethical certainty on abortion were rare in the past but became dominant themes in the 19th century” (p. 121). While the Bible shaped all the abortion debates, it is largely silent on the issue. As such, some of the arguments against abortion were derived from the Greek philosophers’ arguments, including those of Aristotle and Plato.
Still, on the issue of women’s abortion rights, Kozlowska, Beland, and Lecours (2016) examined the correlation between the policy on abortion and the national identity’s political and historical construction in relation to religious symbols and norms. These researchers focused on two countries, Poland and Ireland, where women’s rights to abortion were highly restricted and found that such restrictions were centered on religious constructions of national identity. Particularly, “Irish abortion policy remains extremely restrictive primarily because the Catholic underpinning of Irish national identity has not substantially changed since the 19th century” (p. 827). This statement implies that the Catholic Church was and still is strongly opposed to women’s abortion rights in the country. By extension, the church teachings continue to influence and shape women’s reproductive solutions in other countries across the world.
Religion and its interpretation has deifferent impact on diverse cultures and people. It has been viewed that rather than simply providing new information on women's lives, religion based on interpretation can significantly change our influence. However, the impact is significantly based on the complex and apparently contradictory discourse of feminists in expressing gender identity and unequal social change. Post-Victorian sexual moral movements, particularly those initiated by Ellis Hopkins, and socially pure movements, serve as an example of the value of this rereading. Indeed, one of the most distinctive characteristics of a pure movement is the pre-eminent role of religious women. His posts include not only the Anglo-Royal Hopkins, but also the famous missionaries-rescuers Catherine Bush, Lamistonic songs, the Methodist Mrs. Percy Bunting and an unplanned success in Sarah Robinson. Perhaps, the non-denominational nature of these women's Christian beliefs are considered important. Although they are activists in their religious confessions, they are essentially spiritual pragmatists ready to ignore any doctrine or sectarian tension in the greatest causes of national moral well-being. As Hopkins explains to his pure colleague: "We are all denominations, and the problem of religion is too much power, which is considered difficult."
Similarly, religion also had a strong influence on the issues of childbirth, midwifery, and anesthesia usage. In the 19th century, medical experts began experimenting with the use of anesthesia during childbirth in an attempt to relieve women from labor-related pain. However, Drife (2002) argues that the use of anesthesia received widespread criticism from both the clergy and doctors, "who quoted the book of Genesis: In sorrow shalt, thou bring forth children" (p. 313). This statement underscores the role of Christianity in curtailing women's rights to the use of anesthesia. It even influenced Christian medical practitioners to oppose the practice of anesthetic usage.
Despite greater advances in the field of obstetrics during the 19th century, childbirth was largely dangerous to women. It disproportionately affected poor women more than affluent ones. Specifically, rickets resulted in pelvic deformities among poor women (Drife, 2002). Maternal death also remained high among women belonging to all social classes. Although midwives were allowed to attend poor pregnant mothers in the maternity hospitals, maternal death rates remained high partly due to lack of anesthetic usage. Additionally, pregnant mothers were also subject to frequent epidemics of the so-called puerperal fever, compounding the problem of maternal death (Drife, 2002). Overall, the opposition towards anesthetic usage during childbirth was underpinned on religious grounds.
Women in the nineteenth century has had less or no activities due to the cultural norms. From an overall perspective it can been viewed that to find work outside the home, another different way for women in the nineteenth century to seek public visits is to engage in religious activities. According to Second Great Awakening "came out democratized religious zeal and caused more reforms (more people present at the unprecedented public demonstration). Numerous women are flocking to community religious gatherings because the wave of revival "swept the United States." Women turned to more men than women and men in most congregations (Woloch, 2002). Awakening opens up great potential for ladies in order to enter the community space as a phenomenon provides an outlet for "equal communities away from home" and social events. Therefore, for the first time women experience a "sisterhood" and work together for a common cause in order get effective results. Thus, because of the evangelical experience 'that they have acquired the other new ways to participate in the world and the instruments of ratification.' Women pooled an "unspecified bargain" of religious ratification specifically of "female ethical supremacy in exchange for women's provision and activism" (Woloch, 2002).
In the United States, abortion was considered as legal until the 19th century. The first legal law on abortion, adopted in Connecticut in the year 1821, was a measure to fight against poison to protect women, rather than criminalizing abortion or limiting abortion. The campaign to fight abortion was initiated by the American Medical Association (AMA), the association was constructed in the fifties of the nineteenth century. The AMA campaign has made multiplicative human rights based on political issues. For a variety of reasons, doctors, representati...