Guillain-Barre Syndrome: Manifestations, Prognosis, & Pathophysiology

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Short Essays
1 Clinical Manifestations, Prognosis, and Pathophysiology of Guillain-Barre Syndrome
Guillain-Barre syndrome is an autoimmune disorder that affects the peripheral nervous system (PNS) when antibodies attack the peripheral nerve epitopes, causing neuromuscular weakness (Barnes & Herkes, 2019). It is a rare disorder with a prevalence of 1-2 cases per 100,000.
Guillain-Barre syndrome is often preceded and triggered by an infectious illness such as lung infections or infectious diarrhea (Head & Wakerley, 2016). Patients experience a tingling sensation, which starts from their feet and spreads to their hands. Progressive and symmetrical weakness is also common and can be accompanied by numbness and back pain. The symptoms start to manifest within 3- 42 days after the patient has been exposed (Head & Wakerley, 2016). Some patients also experience paralysis and difficulty in breathing.
Most patients completely recover from Guillain-Barre syndrome. However, some patients die as a result, and others are left with severe disabilities (Zhang, Zhao, & Wang, 2018; Head & Wakerley, 2016). Additionally, patients experience fatigue, neuropathic pain, and postural hypotension even after regaining their sensorimotor. This can persist for more than a year after recovery. There is also a possibility of relapse, years after recovery.
Guillain-Barre syndrome affects the motor, autonomic and sensory nerves (Zhang, Zhao, & Wang, 2018). There are many forms/variants of Guillain-Barre syndrome. The most common form of Guillain-Barre syndrome is acute inflammatory demyelinating polyradiculoneuropathy (AIDP) (Barnes & Herkes, 2019). In this variant, the damages by the immune system interfere with nerve signal transmission. Others include acute axonal neuropathy, cranial nerve variant, and Miller-Fisher syndrome (Zhang, Zhao, & Wang, 2018).
2 Hypovolemic Shock
Hypovolemic shock is a threatening condition that occurs when the body loses a lot of blood or extracellular fluid (Taghavi & Askari, 2020). This affects the heart’s ability to pump blood and oxygen to other body organs. Blood loss is usually caused by traumatic injuries that result in serious bleeding, vaginal bleeding, internal bleeding, and gastrointestinal bleeding (Taghavi & Askari, 2020). Extracellular fluid loss is caused by excessive diarrhea or vomiting, excessive sweating, and a loss of renal fluids, among others (Taghavi & Askari, 2020). This reduces the volume of blood in the body.
The signs and symptoms of hypovolemic shock include thirst, abdominal/chest pains, muscle cramps, cold/clammy skin, low urine output, dry mucous membranes, and confusion (Taghavi & Askari, 2020). In the case of traumatic injuries, the first sign is usually excessive bleeding from an injury site. Piras (2017) also reveals that patients experience rapid heart rate, hypotension, and multiple organ failure due to low blood circulation in the body.
Due to its severity and high potential to cause death, hypovolemic shock requires immediate management and treatment. Treatment depends on whether the shock was caused by blood or extracellular fluid loss. In cases of blood loss, treatment involves stopping or controlling the bleeding and administration of blood products to restore blood volume (Piras, 2017; Taghavi & Askari, 2020). In cases of extracellular fluid loss, treatment involves volume replacement. Taghavi and Askari (2020) indicate that it is difficult to determine which fluid needs to be replaced and as such, isotonic crystalloid solution should be used.
3 Impact of Cigarette Smoking on the Lungs
Cigarette smoking is one of the leading causes of respiratory diseases in the world. It has significant effects on the functioning of the lungs. According to Lu et al. (2018), cigarettes contain several components such as nicotine, aldehydes, oxidants, and fine particulate matter, among others, which cause injury to the lung endothelium. As a result of such injury, the lungs lose their barrier function and this can cause acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). Also, these components irritate the bronchioles and alveoli tissue, thus damaging the lining of the lungs. When the lungs are irritated, patients experience shortness of breath, persistent and productive cough, and chest infections, among other symptoms.
Additionally, smoking blocks the airways (Rico-Martinet al., 2019), thus reducing the lungs' capacity to function at maximum levels. Maximal oxygen uptake among smokers decreases considerably among smokers, which reduces the amount of oxygen being supplied to the tissues. There is usually loss of cilia and mucous gland as a result of smoking. In the absence of the two, the protection of the lungs and the general respiratory system is eliminated. This leaves the lungs exposed to foreign particles which cause congestion in the lungs. Prolonged exposure to cigarettes causes inflammation in the lungs (Lu et al., 2018). This causes the lungs to lose their elasticity, thereby preventing them from properly exchanging carbon dioxide and oxygen. As a result of cigarette smoking, individuals become exposed to several respiratory illnesses such as asthma, bronchitis, lung cancer, and pneumonia, among others.
4 Osteoporosis
Osteoporosis is a bone disease that occurs when the density of bones decreases. It is characterized by reduced bone mass, altered bone architecture, and deteriorating bone mass (Sozen et al., 2017; Zmerly & Akkawi, 2018). As a result, the bones become fragile and face a higher risk of fracture. Some of the main risk factors for osteoporosis are age, gender, and ethnic background (Zmerly & Akkawi, 2018). Older people are more likely to develop osteoporosis. Also, women and Caucasians are more likely to develop osteoporosis than other populations. Other risk factors include physical inactivity, smoking, vitamin D deficiency, high salt intake, and alcohol abuse, among others (Sozen et al., 2017).
In most cases, individuals do not realize they have osteoporosis until they experience a fracture. Zmerly and Akkawi (2018) refer to it as a silent disease and recommend that the population at risk should be screened for early diagnosis. However, patients report certain symptoms such as loss of height, back pain, and hunched posture (Sozen et al., 2017). Frequent fractures can also be a symptom of osteoporosis.
Since osteoporosis is a silent disease, people need to be proactive. It can be prevented or managed by increasing the uptake of vitamin D and calcium (Sozen et al., 2017; Zmerly & Akkawi, 2018). Other lifestyle changes such as regular exercise and reduced alcohol and salt intake can be effective in preventing or managing osteoporosis. Pharmacological interventions are also available for managing the condition by relieving symptoms, maintaining normal physical function, and pr...