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Radioisotopes (tracers) which can determine cancerous tumours locations
Essay Instructions:
Dear support,
please be aware that paper is about detection not treatment.
and please make sure you look at the marking scheme , and do not try to do too many different isotopes.
here is the marking scheme for this paper:
1. Description of the process – can I understand what the process is, what the purpose is, why it is used, how it takes place, where, when, etc? I need to be able to visualize someone in the workplace actually doing whatever this paper is about. What is the process, where is this done, by whom? 15 mark
2. Does the paper tell me what radiation is produced and why? Essentially, what is the radiation hazard? How much? Why is this dangerous? How is it monitored? 15 mark
3. What are the health effects associated with this exposure? Is this acute or chronic? Are the health effects well-documented or is there some debate? Are any particular groups (age, gender, other demographic) especially at risk? Do the risks relate to the worker, or are other groups potentially exposed? Is this a risk to the general public? Is there any risk to those remote from the workplace? Is there a global risk associated with this exposure? 25 mark
4. What kind of protection is used/should be used to protect the worker/ the client/ the public/ the world from this hazard? Is it used? Is it 100% effective, or is there some risk remaining in spite of controls? How do we know the protection is effective? 10 mark
5. Is the paper well-written in the technical sense - logical, flowing from one topic to the next in an orderly fashion, providing a good overview of the topic, not leaving unanswered or unaddressed issues, long enough to cover the topic? Did the student write it, or did the student only “cut and paste” other peoples' writing (this would not be a good thing)? 20 mark
6. Is the paper well-written in the physical sense – word-processed, spell-checked, one-sided, large enough font, references included, diagrams or drawings if necessary, stapled or held together somehow, with the name, student number, course number and topic on the front page? 10 mark
please let me know if your team are able to write this paper
Thank you
Maryam
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Running head: RADIOISOTOPES (TRACERS) WHICH CAN DETERMINE CANCEROUS TUMORS LOCATIONS
Radioisotopes (Tracers) Which Can Determine Cancerous Tumors Locations
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Radioisotopes (Tracers) Which Can Determine Cancerous Tumors Locations
Introduction
Diagnostic applications of radioisotopes in nuclear medicine continue to increase globally. More than 10,000 hospitals in the world rely on radioisotopes in nuclear medicine and about 90 percent of the total procedures in these hospitals are entirely diagnostic. In nuclear medicine, radioisotopes are used to provide critical information about the body organs in normal and pathological states (Galambo & Izenstark, 2010). The current clinical applications of radioisotopes are largely in the diagnosis of brain, thyroid, bone, liver and eye cancer. Radioisotopes often give off energy which can only be detected by a special type of imaging equipment. The imaging equipment will track the movement and location of the radioisotopes thus giving a clue to doctors to know more about the cancerous tumors (Mausner, n.d). Radioisotope diagnostic procedures facilitate timely and complete diagnosis of cancerous tumors thus enabling rapid and effective treatment interventions. While radioisotopes offer little help in the diagnosis of other forms of cancers apart from the cancer of the eye, brain, thyroid, liver and bone, radioisotopes have increasingly been used in detecting various malignancies of the kidney, pancreas, parathyroid and the lungs (Mausner, n.d). Presently, there is an intensive research aimed at improving cancer diagnostic techniques and this promises a number of possibilities in the future in using radioisotopes in diagnosing even more types of malignancies (Galambo & Izenstark, 2010). This paper explores in details the different processes used in cancerous tumor location, the type of radiations involved, the possible health hazards and the protection needed to shield the health workers involved in the process of cancer diagnosis using radioisotopes.
The Radioisotope Diagnostic Procedures for Locating Cancerous Tumors
Diagnostic procedures in cancer patients are aimed at identifying the type of cancers before the patients develop any symptoms. This practice can help locate the cancers at their onset (early stages) thus making treatment of such tumors easier (Sharkey et al, 2008). At the time when symptoms begin to present themselves in the patient’s body, the cancers may have definitely begun to invade other body tissues. Some of the radiological techniques used in cancer diagnostics include positron emission tomography (PET), single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) (Sharkey et al, 2008). Other newer procedures combine both the PET and computer tomography (CT) scans to provide a better diagnosis compared to when traditional gamma cameras are used alone. The diagnostic radioisotopes in nuclear medicine utilize the radioactive tracers that emit the gamma rays from the body. The tracers are often short-lived isotopes which are linked to some chemical compounds that allow detailed study of specific physiological processes (Sharkey et al, 2008). The radioisotopes can be administered through injections, oral routes or by inhalation. In radioisotope diagnosis of cancer, single photons are usually detected using a gamma camera which is able to view organs from different directions. The gamma camera then builds images from the points where the radiations are emitted (Sharkey et al, 2008). The enhancement of these images using a computer makes it possible for them to be viewed by physicians on a computer monitor for indications of any abnormal growth.
PET scan
Perhaps one of the commonly used procedures for locating cancerous tumors is the positron emission tomography (PET) (Martin et al, 1996). PET has been identified to provide detailed information on cancerous tumors than they do MRI scans, CT scans and x-rays. PET scans can also show whether tumors are either malignant or benign and can determine the extent to which the cancer has spread to other parts of the body (Mausner, n.d). For instance, PET can help doctors to detect how much mesothelioma has spread to other parts of the body and make it easier for doctors to decide whether surgical procedures are required or if the drugs the patient is put on are working. The PET scan serves as a powerful prognostic and diagnostic tool because of its capacity to localize cancer cells with much accuracy and detailed information than other traditional tests (Mausner, n.d). Compared to other standard mesothelioma diagnostic techniques such as surgical biopsy and thoracoscopy, PET scans have been regarded as the most successful method in detecting the presence of mesothelioma malignancies (Fink & Ryan, 2000). The technique takes advantage of the metabolic cellular processes to produce images of the inside body with finer details. Cancer cells usually metabolize sugars at a faster rate compared to other type of cells in the body. PET scans are able to detect any abnormal activity and can point out the parts with active disease (Fink & Ryan, 2000). PET scans can differentiate tumors from scar tissues and provide clearer images about the metabolic function of cancer cells. This can help doctors track the effects of chemotherapy and radiation thus enable them make decisions to avoid unnecessary surgical procedures (Fink & Ryan, 2000). Patients are usually given an intravenous (I.V) injection of a radioactive glucose solution before receiving a PET scan. The body of the patient is then scanned with a special type of equipment which is capable of detecting the presence of the radioactive material (Fink & Ryan, 2000). The cancerous tissue is able to absorb the radioactive agent since cancer cells have the property of using sugars quickly than any other healthy tissue. Scanners can be used to spot any radioactive deposits thus making a distinction between healthy tissues and cancerous tissues.
In PET scan procedure, patients are injected with a short-lived radioactive tracer isotope such as carbon-11, oxygen-15, nitrogen-13 or fluorine-18 (Fink & Ryan, 2000). Another radioisotope used in nuclear medicine is the artificially produced technetium-99. The radioisotope material is usually injected directly into the blood circulation system. The tracer agent is then incorporated chemically into another biologically active compound (Fink & Ryan, 2000). Radiologists usually have a waiting period to allow the active molecule become concentrated in the tissue in question. After the active molecule has become concentrated, the patient is then put in the imaging scanner. The commonly used active molecule is flouro-2-deoxy-D-glucose (2FDG) which is a sugar that requires one hour waiting period (United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission, 2010). During every scan, all records about tissue concentration are made as the tracer agent decay. The radioisotope emits high energy positron kind of radiation as it undergoes positron emission decay process which is also known as the positive beta decay. A positron is an electron antiparticle which has an opposite charge and it encounters an electron after travelling for a few millimeters (United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission, 2010). This encounter usually annihilates both the electron and the positron hence yielding a pair of annihilation photons which move in the opposite directions. The gamma photons yielded are detected once they reach the scintillator in the device used for scanning thus producing a burst of gamma radiation that is usually detected by silicon avalanche photodiodes (SiAPD) or photomultiplier tubes as shown in figure 1. The PET technique largely depends on the coincident or simultaneous detection of the pair of photons which moves in the opposite direction and any of the photons which don’t arrive in temporal pairs within nanoseconds are ignored. PET scans are sometimes done together with CT scans to provide even clearer images useful for cancerous tumor location (United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission, 2010). A combination of PET and CT scan is beneficial in cancer diagnosis as it renders fast and highly detailed results which reflect the stage or the presence of mesothelioma as well as other malignancies (United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission, 2010). The results from PET scans are always ready within very few days. Just like CT scans, the PET scans are first interpreted by a radiologist specialist. Thereafter, the results can be forwarded to the physician attending the patient and will reveal all the findings to the afflicted patient.
Fig 1. PET procedure (PET scans Lab, n.d)
The use of PET scans is common in detecting lung cancer and has helped patients to avoid unnecessary chest surgery. The procedure locates tumors which operation procedures are not able to remove (United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission, 2010). PET scan is approved by Medicare in the staging and diagnosing of melanoma lymphoma and throat, rectum, mouth, colon, lung and esophagus cancers. Research has shown that PET scans can have the potential of determining and diagnosing mesothelioma and the extent of tumor spread (Kumar, 1998). The sugar tracer, 2FDG has shown greater potential in cancer location and staging compared to other procedures such as thoracoscopy or other surgical biopsies.
SPECT
SPECT is an imaging technique in nuclear medicine which employs gamma rays and can produce high quality 3D images. Just like in PET scans, SPECT involves the injecting of radionuclides into the circulatory system of the patient (Fink & Ryan, 2000). The radioisotopes such as gallium (III) injected into the patient emit gamma radiations into the patient’s bloodstream (Fink & Ryan, 2000). Gallium (III) has chemical properties that enable it to be concentrated thus enabling accurate cancer detection. In most cases, marker radioisotopes critical for their radioactive properties are attached to special ligands important because of their properties of chemical binding to other types of tissues (Fink & Ryan, 2000). The interaction allows for the combination of the radioisotopes (radiopharmaceuticals) and the ligand to be transported and bound to the site of interest which finally allows visualization of ligand concentration on the gamma camera (Takhar et al, 2004). SPECT uses same radioactive tracers just like PET and the detection of gamma rays is similar to in both methods. However, the tra...
Radioisotopes (Tracers) Which Can Determine Cancerous Tumors Locations
Name:
University:
Instructor:
Date:
Radioisotopes (Tracers) Which Can Determine Cancerous Tumors Locations
Introduction
Diagnostic applications of radioisotopes in nuclear medicine continue to increase globally. More than 10,000 hospitals in the world rely on radioisotopes in nuclear medicine and about 90 percent of the total procedures in these hospitals are entirely diagnostic. In nuclear medicine, radioisotopes are used to provide critical information about the body organs in normal and pathological states (Galambo & Izenstark, 2010). The current clinical applications of radioisotopes are largely in the diagnosis of brain, thyroid, bone, liver and eye cancer. Radioisotopes often give off energy which can only be detected by a special type of imaging equipment. The imaging equipment will track the movement and location of the radioisotopes thus giving a clue to doctors to know more about the cancerous tumors (Mausner, n.d). Radioisotope diagnostic procedures facilitate timely and complete diagnosis of cancerous tumors thus enabling rapid and effective treatment interventions. While radioisotopes offer little help in the diagnosis of other forms of cancers apart from the cancer of the eye, brain, thyroid, liver and bone, radioisotopes have increasingly been used in detecting various malignancies of the kidney, pancreas, parathyroid and the lungs (Mausner, n.d). Presently, there is an intensive research aimed at improving cancer diagnostic techniques and this promises a number of possibilities in the future in using radioisotopes in diagnosing even more types of malignancies (Galambo & Izenstark, 2010). This paper explores in details the different processes used in cancerous tumor location, the type of radiations involved, the possible health hazards and the protection needed to shield the health workers involved in the process of cancer diagnosis using radioisotopes.
The Radioisotope Diagnostic Procedures for Locating Cancerous Tumors
Diagnostic procedures in cancer patients are aimed at identifying the type of cancers before the patients develop any symptoms. This practice can help locate the cancers at their onset (early stages) thus making treatment of such tumors easier (Sharkey et al, 2008). At the time when symptoms begin to present themselves in the patient’s body, the cancers may have definitely begun to invade other body tissues. Some of the radiological techniques used in cancer diagnostics include positron emission tomography (PET), single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) (Sharkey et al, 2008). Other newer procedures combine both the PET and computer tomography (CT) scans to provide a better diagnosis compared to when traditional gamma cameras are used alone. The diagnostic radioisotopes in nuclear medicine utilize the radioactive tracers that emit the gamma rays from the body. The tracers are often short-lived isotopes which are linked to some chemical compounds that allow detailed study of specific physiological processes (Sharkey et al, 2008). The radioisotopes can be administered through injections, oral routes or by inhalation. In radioisotope diagnosis of cancer, single photons are usually detected using a gamma camera which is able to view organs from different directions. The gamma camera then builds images from the points where the radiations are emitted (Sharkey et al, 2008). The enhancement of these images using a computer makes it possible for them to be viewed by physicians on a computer monitor for indications of any abnormal growth.
PET scan
Perhaps one of the commonly used procedures for locating cancerous tumors is the positron emission tomography (PET) (Martin et al, 1996). PET has been identified to provide detailed information on cancerous tumors than they do MRI scans, CT scans and x-rays. PET scans can also show whether tumors are either malignant or benign and can determine the extent to which the cancer has spread to other parts of the body (Mausner, n.d). For instance, PET can help doctors to detect how much mesothelioma has spread to other parts of the body and make it easier for doctors to decide whether surgical procedures are required or if the drugs the patient is put on are working. The PET scan serves as a powerful prognostic and diagnostic tool because of its capacity to localize cancer cells with much accuracy and detailed information than other traditional tests (Mausner, n.d). Compared to other standard mesothelioma diagnostic techniques such as surgical biopsy and thoracoscopy, PET scans have been regarded as the most successful method in detecting the presence of mesothelioma malignancies (Fink & Ryan, 2000). The technique takes advantage of the metabolic cellular processes to produce images of the inside body with finer details. Cancer cells usually metabolize sugars at a faster rate compared to other type of cells in the body. PET scans are able to detect any abnormal activity and can point out the parts with active disease (Fink & Ryan, 2000). PET scans can differentiate tumors from scar tissues and provide clearer images about the metabolic function of cancer cells. This can help doctors track the effects of chemotherapy and radiation thus enable them make decisions to avoid unnecessary surgical procedures (Fink & Ryan, 2000). Patients are usually given an intravenous (I.V) injection of a radioactive glucose solution before receiving a PET scan. The body of the patient is then scanned with a special type of equipment which is capable of detecting the presence of the radioactive material (Fink & Ryan, 2000). The cancerous tissue is able to absorb the radioactive agent since cancer cells have the property of using sugars quickly than any other healthy tissue. Scanners can be used to spot any radioactive deposits thus making a distinction between healthy tissues and cancerous tissues.
In PET scan procedure, patients are injected with a short-lived radioactive tracer isotope such as carbon-11, oxygen-15, nitrogen-13 or fluorine-18 (Fink & Ryan, 2000). Another radioisotope used in nuclear medicine is the artificially produced technetium-99. The radioisotope material is usually injected directly into the blood circulation system. The tracer agent is then incorporated chemically into another biologically active compound (Fink & Ryan, 2000). Radiologists usually have a waiting period to allow the active molecule become concentrated in the tissue in question. After the active molecule has become concentrated, the patient is then put in the imaging scanner. The commonly used active molecule is flouro-2-deoxy-D-glucose (2FDG) which is a sugar that requires one hour waiting period (United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission, 2010). During every scan, all records about tissue concentration are made as the tracer agent decay. The radioisotope emits high energy positron kind of radiation as it undergoes positron emission decay process which is also known as the positive beta decay. A positron is an electron antiparticle which has an opposite charge and it encounters an electron after travelling for a few millimeters (United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission, 2010). This encounter usually annihilates both the electron and the positron hence yielding a pair of annihilation photons which move in the opposite directions. The gamma photons yielded are detected once they reach the scintillator in the device used for scanning thus producing a burst of gamma radiation that is usually detected by silicon avalanche photodiodes (SiAPD) or photomultiplier tubes as shown in figure 1. The PET technique largely depends on the coincident or simultaneous detection of the pair of photons which moves in the opposite direction and any of the photons which don’t arrive in temporal pairs within nanoseconds are ignored. PET scans are sometimes done together with CT scans to provide even clearer images useful for cancerous tumor location (United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission, 2010). A combination of PET and CT scan is beneficial in cancer diagnosis as it renders fast and highly detailed results which reflect the stage or the presence of mesothelioma as well as other malignancies (United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission, 2010). The results from PET scans are always ready within very few days. Just like CT scans, the PET scans are first interpreted by a radiologist specialist. Thereafter, the results can be forwarded to the physician attending the patient and will reveal all the findings to the afflicted patient.
Fig 1. PET procedure (PET scans Lab, n.d)
The use of PET scans is common in detecting lung cancer and has helped patients to avoid unnecessary chest surgery. The procedure locates tumors which operation procedures are not able to remove (United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission, 2010). PET scan is approved by Medicare in the staging and diagnosing of melanoma lymphoma and throat, rectum, mouth, colon, lung and esophagus cancers. Research has shown that PET scans can have the potential of determining and diagnosing mesothelioma and the extent of tumor spread (Kumar, 1998). The sugar tracer, 2FDG has shown greater potential in cancer location and staging compared to other procedures such as thoracoscopy or other surgical biopsies.
SPECT
SPECT is an imaging technique in nuclear medicine which employs gamma rays and can produce high quality 3D images. Just like in PET scans, SPECT involves the injecting of radionuclides into the circulatory system of the patient (Fink & Ryan, 2000). The radioisotopes such as gallium (III) injected into the patient emit gamma radiations into the patient’s bloodstream (Fink & Ryan, 2000). Gallium (III) has chemical properties that enable it to be concentrated thus enabling accurate cancer detection. In most cases, marker radioisotopes critical for their radioactive properties are attached to special ligands important because of their properties of chemical binding to other types of tissues (Fink & Ryan, 2000). The interaction allows for the combination of the radioisotopes (radiopharmaceuticals) and the ligand to be transported and bound to the site of interest which finally allows visualization of ligand concentration on the gamma camera (Takhar et al, 2004). SPECT uses same radioactive tracers just like PET and the detection of gamma rays is similar to in both methods. However, the tra...
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