Embodiment of Educational Inequality in Chinese Education System

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Education is frequently seen as the foundation of an equitable and prosperous society today. It can influence people’s lives in a variety of ways. Education is robust because it can impact personal growth, improved well-being, career success, and positive societal contributions, making it a cornerstone of individual and shared progress. However, despite the admirable goals of education, inequalities still exist and prevent it from reaching its full potential.
Educational inequality is a complex problem that still exists. Educational inequalities manifest in various dimensions, often correlated with socioeconomic status, race, gender, geographical location, and disabilities. These inequalities result from multiple factors, including unequal funding distribution, limited access to learning resources, institutional biases, and cultural prejudices (Jansen, 2019). For instance, it is known that education remains a pivotal determinant of economic mobility. People with superior education often gain entry to higher-paying jobs, thereby perpetuating economic inequality.
Meanwhile, inadequate education restricts opportunities, perpetuating cycles of poverty. In addition, educational disparities reinforce societal divides, promoting stereotypes and biases. This event perpetuates social divisions and weakens the social fabric. Hence, there is a need to resolve the existing educational disparities. However, resolving these disparities requires multifaceted approaches.
While the battle against educational inequalities is formidable, it is not insurmountable. The disparities can be addressed through a concerted effort encompassing governments, communities, educators, and individuals. The aspiration is an education system where equitable access, quality instruction, and inclusive practices prevail, offering a pathway for all individuals, regardless of their origins, to contribute positively to society.
Context
The Chinese education system is no exception to the educational inequalities. While China has made significant strides in expanding access to education, disparities in quality, resources, and opportunities continue to plague the system. China’s rapid economic growth has transformed it into a global powerhouse. As the nation focused on modernization and development, it faced the challenge of providing education to its vast population. While tremendous progress has been achieved in improving access to education, disparities remain due to factors such as urban-rural divides, regional imbalances, household incomes, and hukou (Guo et al., 2019). Therefore, these factors contribute to differing educational resources, teacher quality, and curricular offerings between privileged urban areas and less-developed rural regions.
For instance, the various household income of Chinese families has been a significant factor in the educational disparities. Some families can afford to enroll their children in after-school programs or private tutoring. The program is positively associated with student academic achievement and self-confidence (Zheng et al., 2020). However, some families need help to enroll their children in programs like this. Moreover, the hukou, or the household registration policy, has also been a significant factor in the educational disparities experienced by the Chinese. The hukou has reduced the free, high-quality education available to migrant children. They prefer to enroll in private institutions since they are not eligible for the free, compulsory education provided by public schools. The quality of instruction offered by private institutions is lower than that of public schools, which causes children to perform poorly academically. Thus, these situations demonstrate that there is an education disparity in China.
Literature Review
Bourdieu’s Sociological Theory
Pierre Bourdieu developed a theory to help individuals understand various forms of inequality. As previously stated, education must be the agent of prosperity and equity. However, Bourdieu’s theory sheds light on educational system inequities. His idea highlights the influence of cultural, social, and economic capital on academic achievements. The concepts of cultural capital, habitus, social reproduction, symbolic violence, and social capital were all introduced by Bourdieu. Bourdieu’s theory highlights the complex interplay of cultural, economic, and social factors in shaping educational inequalities. He stated that addressing these gaps needed fundamental reforms in society and the school system to ensure that all individuals, regardless of status, have equal access to opportunities and resources. (Mu, 2020).
Cultural Capital
Cultural capital refers to a person’s knowledge and skills acquired in their culture due to their upbringing. Cultural capital may include language proficiency, art and literature knowledge, or cultural norms awareness. Cultural capital can be passed down from generation to generation within families and communities. As a result, those with a more significant capital culture have an advantage in education since they are more equipped with the information and skills the educational system expects (Mu, 2020).
Habitus
Habitus refers to the internalized set of dispositions, preferences, and behaviors that individuals acquire as a result of their socialization. Habitus is shaped by an individual’s experiences and the social context in which they are raised. It influences how people perceive and interact with their surroundings, including educational institutions. Habitus may include a person’s way of dressing, gestures, and values. Habitus can either align with or clash with the dominant culture and expectations of the education system, affecting an individual’s success within that system (Mu, 2020).
Social Reproduction
Bourdieu’s theory emphasizes the idea of social reproduction, which describes how social inequalities are perpetuated across generations. He argued that the education system often reinforces existing social hierarchies by favoring those who possess cultural capital that aligns with the dominant culture and norms. It means that privileged people are more likely to succeed in education and achieve higher social status, while those from less privileged backgrounds face barriers (Mu, 2020). Since educational inequality exists in most countries, this situation applies to practically all educational systems, not just the Chinese ones.
Symbolic Violence
Bourdieu also popularized the idea of symbolic violence, which refers to the covert and frequently unnoticed ways that individuals, particularly those from marginalized backgrounds, are subjected to dominant cultural norms and values. Symbolic violence in the classroom can take the form of discriminatory instruction, unfair treatment of teachers, and institutional policies that disfavor particular groups (Mu, 2020). Africans, for example, are more susceptible to symbolic violence. This group encounters unfair treatment in practically every area of their lives, not just in the classroom. There was even a time when schools were segregated into white and black sections, with the black students receiving less quality education than the white students (Mlachila & Moeletsi, 2019). This incident has also contributed to the disparity where whites receive quality education and achieve better academic results.
Social Capital
Bourdieu highlighted social capital, the term for people’s social networks and interactions, and cultural and economic capital. Social capital can make access to significant resources, opportunities, and knowledge possible. Strong social networks increase a person’s chance of getting support and advice for navigating the educational system, which can help them succeed (Mu, 2020).
Chinese Educational System Inequality
The global problem of educational inequality, characterized by unequal access to opportunities and high-quality education, is persistent and has wide-ranging effects. Educational inequality in China, a nation that has experienced significant economic growth and change, presents difficulties and opportunities. Despite considerable progress in increasing educational access, disparities exist, especially in the urban-rural gap, regional imbalances, hukou regulations, and socioeconomic factors. It is imperative to address these gaps because they impede society’s cohesiveness, economic growth, and social mobility.
Intersectionality, Critical Race Theory, and Educational Inequality
In his paper, “Intersectionality, Critical Race Theory, and the Primacy of Racism: Race, Class, Gender, and Disability in Education,” David Gillborn (2015) emphasizes the importance of intersectionality and critical race theory in comprehending educational inequity. When these frameworks are applied to the Chinese context, a web of interconnected elements, including racial and socioeconomic status, gender, and disability, collectively impact educational results and experiences. Rural-to-urban migration, for instance, may exacerbate already-existing disadvantages by interacting with socioeconomic differences, ethnicity, and prejudices.
Addressing Intersecting Inequalities
In Chapter 8, “Addressing Intersecting Inequalities in Education,” Elaine Unterhalter (2021)provides relevant information on the Chinese situation. Unterhalter’s examination of methods to deal with intersecting inequities resonates in the Chinese context, even if it is not explicitly focused on China. The emphasis placed in this chapter on thorough, focused interventions that consider different identities and experiences is in line with the difficulties in bridging gaps in China’s enormous and diversified educational system.
Pedagogy of the Oppressed
“Pedagogy of the Oppressed,” a significant work by Paolo Freire (1996), addresses education as a tool for emancipation and societal change. While Freire’s viewpoint comes from a distinct cultural setting, his insights are relevant in discussing educational inequality in China. The book emphasizes the importance of an education system that allows students to engage with their surroundings and critically challenge oppressive structures. This viewpoint is pertinent to China’s efforts to address entrenched inequities and promote a more equitable educational environment.
Factors Contributing to Educational Inequality
Urban-Rural Disparities
Urban-rural discrepancies in China’s education system are firmly ingrained in the country’s agricultural heritage. Educational resources, such as well-trained teachers, modern facilities, and advanced curricula, are disproportionately concentrated in cities, leaving rural communities behind. According to Rozelle and Hell (2020), metropolitan schools have more significant resources and facilities, which leads to higher-quality education and better student outcomes. These discrepancies sustain a cycle in which urban kids are more likely to obtain higher education and have better job prospects than their rural peers.
Regional Imbalances and Resource Allocation
China’s rapid economic expansion has resulted in significant regional inequities in schooling. Coastal provinces gain from increased financial success and, as a result, more significant educational investments. According to Geng and Zhao (2020), regional imbalances cause a significant mismatch between educational resources and student requirements. For example, schools in economically developed areas provide a more extensive selection of extracurricular activities and advanced courses, whereas schools in less-developed areas require assistance to provide basic amenities. This disparity exacerbates inequality, continuing a cycle of disparities in educational achievements.
Hukou Policies and Migrant Education
The hukou system in China, intended to govern urbanization and access to social services, has far-reaching educational ramifications. Due to stringent hukou rules, migrant children whose parents have moved from rural to urban areas for jobs have difficulties in receiving quality education. According to Xu and Wu (2020), these children face numerous problems, including limited enrollment alternatives, discriminatory treatment, and inadequate educational facilities. Despite specific governmental changes, migrant children have unequal educational prospects, prolonging the cycle of deprivation.
Shadow Education and Its Impact
Educational inequality has resulted in the emergence of shadow schooling, private tutoring, and test preparation services. According to Zhang (2020), while shadow education is widespread, it disproportionately advantages affluent families who can afford more resources. This practice deepens the achievement gap between rich and poor pupils and supports the perception that standardized testing is the primary indicator of success. The influence of shadow schooling on educational inequality is twofold: it perpetuates both academic gaps and the commodification of education.
Gender Disparities in Education
Economic issues are not the only ones driving educational inequality in China. Gender is also essential, particularly in rural regions. Traditional gender stereotypes continue to exist, limiting females’ access to education. According to Wu et al. (2020), girls in some rural communities are still expected to prioritize home chores over schooling. Due to this societal bias, girls have lower enrollment rates, higher dropout rates, and fewer opportunities. Policy adjustments and cultural shifts are required to counteract persistent gender stereotypes and close gender-based educational inequalities. This viewpoint has existed for a long time, and it may be time to dismiss it.
Discussion
The Issue of Education Inequality
Due to its rich history and rapid modernization, China has become a global powerhouse in various fields. Its economic progress, technical breakthroughs, and cultural heritage have helped it become a global player. However, despite this dynamic context, significant educational inequities require addressing. While China’s education system has made significant strides, disparities exist across regions and populations. In urban areas, better-funded schools, access to modern resources, and highly educated educators are typical advantages (Guo et al., 2019).
Rural and underserved regions, on the other hand, confront difficulty in providing quality education due to limited resources and inexperienced teaching staff. The Chinese government has acknowledged these inequities and begun steps to bridge the education gap. These policies have been implemented to improve access to education in rural and isolated areas, such as giving free textbooks, boarding school subsidies, and deploying experienced teachers to neglected areas (Guo et al., 2019). Online education and digital materials have also extended learning outside traditional classroom settings. As a result, inequities in the Chinese educational system have already been detected and addressed.
The emphasis on cultural, social, and economic capital interrelationships in Pierre Bourdieu’s sociological theory remarkably echoes the Chinese educational scene (Mu, 2020). Cultural capital, which consists of inherited knowledge and abilities,...