Blood Health, Medicine, Nursing Coursework Research

The Blood
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The Blood Plasma- (Q2)
The plasma is the most considerable component and liquid portion of the blood. It appears straw-colored or light-yellowish and is extracted when all the cells (leukocytes, RBCs, and platelets) are removed. More than 90 percent of this component is water, while the rest consists of dissolved substances. These include hormones, antibodies, proteins, electrolytes, nutrient molecules, and gases. Blood plasma acts as a medium for transporting nutrients to the cells of the different body organs. It also carries waste products obtained from cellular metabolism to the lungs, kidneys, and liver for excretion (Benjamin, R.J. and McLaughlin, L.S., 2012). Other crucial roles of this blood component include transportation of all parts of the blood throughout the circulatory system, maintenance of normal blood pressure, and aiding heat distribution through the entire body.
Electrolytes are essential for the normal functioning of nerves and muscles. Calcium, potassium, sodium, chloride, and bicarbonate assist regulation of pH balance in the blood. Proteins make about 7% of the blood plasma, which plays different crucial roles in the body. Immunoglobulins are a vital class of proteins that supply protective antibodies in response to bacterial or viral antigens. Cytokines help in the regulation of inflammation and maintenance of normal blood cell formation. Coagulation proteins and their inhibitors play a crucial role in clotting, preventing excessive blood loss (Benjamin, R.J. and McLaughlin, L.S., 2012).
Other proteins' roles include carrying fatty acids and hormones, maintaining osmotic balance, carrying clotting factors, and providing viscosity to the blood. The plasma contains dissolved nutrients such as fats, minerals, vitamins, glucose, amino acids, and varying amounts of carbon dioxide, oxygen, and nitrogen.
Blood compatibility -(Q 3b)
During a blood transfusion, the recipient's blood must contain the same antigens as the donor. Understanding blood group compatibility is vital in ensuring that individuals are not at risk of receiving incompatible blood types in the type of need, like during surgery or blood transfusion. Mixing two different blood types can cause blood cells clumping, which may be potentially fatal (Ezugwu, Otegbeye, O., Govender, and Odo, 2020). Prior testing and cross-matching of the recipient's blood against the donor reduce the risk of transfusion reaction.
Human blood comes in multiple blood groups categorized based on their genetic composition. The protein antigen is present outside the red blood cells. The ABO blood typing system comprises of four primary types:
1 Blood type A: It consists of Group A antigens and produces antibodies to fight blood Group B.
2 Blood type B: Contains antigens of blood Group B and makes antibodies capable of fighting Group A blood.
3 Type AB blood: Comprises of both Group B and A antigens but does not make antibodies for any of them.
4 Type O: Is termed as the universal donor because it lacks both types of antigens and can be donated to recipients within the four blood types.
(Q4a)
A patient in the A blood group has anti-B antibodies that occur naturally in their blood. These individuals can donate blood to recipients with A and AB blood types. They are also compatible with O and A donors. People in the B blood type are compatible with recipients in the B and AB blood group and B and O donors.
Donors with AB blood type are only compatible with AB recipients. They can receive blood from individuals with A, AB, B, and O types of blood. Those with O blood type can give blood to patients in A, B, AB, and O categories (Ma, Z.J., Wang, K.M. and Dai, Y., 2019). However, they are only compatible with donors who have O type of blood.
(Q 4b)
Blood type AB is regarded as the universal recipient because patients in this category can receive blood from donors of any blood type. These people do not have antibodies to fight blood group A, B, or Rh in their blood, and, thus, it can be safely transfused from donors in all four categories. The plasma comprises both Group B and A antigens but does not make antibodies for any of them. On the other hand, they can only donate to recipients with AB blood types. About 5 in every 100 people in the US have AB type of blood, with 4% having AB+ and approximately 1 percent being AB-negative blood type.
(Q 4c)
Apart from the ABO system, the Rhesus factor is another protein in the red blood cells that can affect donor-recipient compatibility. Those who have this protein are regarded as Rh-positive, while people without it are termed as Rh-negative. Antibodies are created to fight the proteins in a recipient's body that do not produce them naturally. Patients with Rh- blood cannot receive blood from Rh+ donors because their bodies will attack the blood on contact.
Another reason you should understand blood compatibility is to eliminate or counteract the risks that may occur when having biological children with your partner. While being Rh- or Rh+ does not affect one's health, it could affect pregnancy. Rh incompatibility after the first pregnancy can harm the baby's RBCs. In such cases, the baby might require red blood cell transfusion before or after delivery (Tyndall, C., Cuzzilla, R. and Kane, S.C., 2020).
Blood cell formation- (Q 5b)
Blood cells are formed through a process known as hematopoiesis. They are made in the bone marrow, which is the soft tissue inside certain bones. The tissue contains young parent cells, referred to as stem cells. These cells can produce all three blood cells; white cells, red cells, and platelets. Blood-forming stem cells replicate themselves and are also responsible for the production of mature blood cells.
When these cells increase, many of the daughter cells remain as stem cells to prevent the depletion of hematopoietic stem cells. The rest commit to the alternative differentiation pathways that form specific types of blood cells. However, it is worth noting that these cells are not self-renewing. When they are fully functional and mature, they leave the bone marrow, entering the blood. Healthy people have sufficient stem cells to continue producing all the blood cells required.
Maturation and activation and some proliferation processes occur in secondary lymphoid organs like the lymph nodes, spleen, and thymus. The method of hematopoiesis in children happens within the marrow of long bones such as the tibia and femur. In adults, this occurs in the vertebrae, pelvis, as well as sternum. Stem cells go through different gene expression changes that move them closer to a specific type of cell.
(Q 6)
Also known as the erythrocytes, the red blood cells are the most abundant types of cells in the blood. Their primary function is to transport oxygen to different body cells and throughout the body. They also carry carbon dioxide to the lungs. These cells contain many proteins known as hemoglobin, which facilitate the binding of oxygen, as the molecules of this gas get into the vessels in the lungs. They also act as the anchor points for the RBCs'cytoskeletal network. Besides, hemoglobin plays an essential role in producing the characteristic red color of the blood.
Additionally, RBCs have a biconcave shape, an inward surface curve that resembles a sphere's interior part. It is present on both sides of the cells, allowing them to maneuver through narrow vessels to deliver oxygen to different tissues and organs. The shape is crucial in enhancing the surface area to volume ratio of these extremely minute cells.
These cells contain a peripheral membrane that forms a complex mesh-like cytoskeletal network along the cell membrane's inner part. The network is responsible for imparting strength and elasticity to the red blood cells (Ma, Z.J., Wang, K.M. and Dai, Y., 2019). It allows them to penetrate through small capillaries in the body without causing damage. Unlike other body cells, mature red blood cells lack ribosomes, nucleus, and mitochondria. The absence of these structures creates room for the millions of hemoglobin molecules present in erythrocytes.
Lck of a nucleus in erythrocytes is significant in enhancing oxygen capacity. It also ensures that there is no cell division and minimizes the cells' overall weight, facilitating faster movement during oxygen transportation. These blood cells have a vital role in determining human blood type, which depends on the absence or presence of specific identifiers present on their surface. Red blood cells identifiers, popularly known as antigens, help the body recognize its type of blood cells. Erythrocyte surface antigens are crucial in blood transfusion as they serve as determinants of blood group compatibility.
How hemoglobin transports oxygen in the body- (Q 7a)
Hemoglobin is responsible for transporting the majority of oxygen in the body. This gas enters the body via airways, passing through the bronchial tree. A small percentage of oxygen is dissolved directly in the blood, with 98.5% being carried by the hemoglobin in the red blood cells into the ...