General Background Rewilding of North America

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Abstract
The concept of nature conservation and has experienced significant transformations over the years. This study focuses on Rewilding of North America that tends to explain the existing discourses that surround the concept of Rewilding. There are several concepts such as philosophical explanations on nature that tries to expose the real human conception on nature. There are several new discourses on conservation of nature, amongst which Rewilding seem to be popular. The increasing number of publications reveals the dominating effects of Rewilding in the conservation biology as well as the mainstream. This study shows that nature conservation is an integral part of the society, therefore, leading to emergence of new discourses that requires constant updates. Discourse Analysis is the applicable method of analysis that helps reveal existing approaches towards conservation of nature. Different publications which include peer-reviewed literature and other books, news articles and websites are utilized. The results show that Rewilding of North America requires an optimistic promotion of conservation efforts towards nature. This ensures the maintenance of natural process that requires connectivity at different levels of operation and restoration of the megafauna.
REWILDING OF NORTH AMERICA
1 Introduction
This chapter introduces the topic of this study and provides a general overview of both historical as well as current development of rewilding of North America. In this chapter, there are sub-topics that include general background that helps set the foundation under which this study is developed. Then there is the discussion on the research problem followed by research objectives and questions.
1.1 General background
There are several discourses concerning the natural, political as well as economic processes that help in the definition and discussion of the different phenomenon. The inclusion of the concept of social science in the analysis of ecosystem helps in the revelation of dimensions that provide an understanding of the current environmental problems. The current environmental crisis that ails the whole world has led to a generation of environmental discourses. In the last three decades, the global environment has undergone complex changes that have direly affected the healthy co-existence between flora and fauna (Gammon 332).
Historically, the world golden age of animal exoticism was referred to as Pleistocene epoch and approximated to have come to an end 10,000 years ago. This geological period was known as the end of the Paleolithic in accordance with archeological terms. There were experiences of extensive destruction of large animal biodiversity (Cerqueira et al., 47 ). Such loss could be attributable to several factors some of which include climatic changes that involve deglaciation, human activities as well as the existence of new diseases that led to widespread extinction of species. Notably, the massive destruction of major biodiversity across continents is considered to coincide with human civilization that led to the death of many species in decades. Especially, the emergence of philosophical science has promoted the separation between humans and the external environment, therefore, prioritizing the development of urban and industrial society other than the ecosystem as a whole (Jørgensen 482).
However, despite the widespread destruction, some regions of the world still possess a good percentage of mega-faunal diversity. These include the regions of Africa as well as some parts of Asia. The regions are believed to be homes where humans coexisted with animals for a very long period (Kareiva and Marvier 962). However, the current instability within the political and socio-economic landscape endangered the species. From the perspective of scientists, such a massive loss of vertebrate biodiversity presents the world with much graver consequences. The general perception of human beings towards nature affects the concept of nature or environmental conservation. Ecologically, a healthy ecosystem should comprise of large herbivores as well as predators. The loss of the species as per the records may lead to dire consequences in the future of the world (Donlan 932).
The process of rewilding requires the commencement with ecological study on a smaller scale for the purposes of establishing the nature of the response of exotic species to the North American Environment. In this case, the species that would adapt faster are given priority before dealing with more complex species such as big cats. This would also be necessary when considering the flora of the Pleistocene which would be retrieved from the fossil records. The concept would require large tracts of land capable of accommodating the rewilding process. Some of the regions for consideration for such endeavor would be the fallow regions of the Great Plains. Such areas provide good places for the establishment of the nature reserves and game parks (Thompson 896).
1.2 Problem Statement
The concept of rewilding has continued to attract attention across continents due to its contribution to environmental and nature conservation. However, the practical influence of rewilding on nature conservation and environmental literature has not received sufficient theoretical coverage. From the historical perspective, the ecosystem in North America is undergoing extinction especially considering the massive loss of the biodiversity in the past few decades. Such a loss calls for a long-term solution in a bid to save the entire ecosystem from the loss which eventually could lead to serious consequences on the environment. One of the viable solutions points to the use of species from other regions such as Asia and Africa as a replacement of the extinct Pleistocene North American species (Jørgensen 482). This would assist in replenishing the wilderness that once existed in Northern America.
The massive destruction of the ecosystem interfered with the ecological health within the entire region. For instance, the Peregrine falcons were considered to be one of the species at the brink of extinction following chemical contamination of the environment. There are several other endangered habitats such as fish habitats that include salt marshes and mangroves (Donlan 932). Also, the duration of the Pleistocene saw the destruction and the loss of animal species such as giant tortoises, camelids, lions as well as cheetahs within the Great Plain Regions as well as the American Southwest region. These species had close relations with those from North America during the period of Pleistocene. Such level of loss leads to the destruction of the food chain such as the predator-prey relations that are key in shaping the ecosystem. The current North America is much dominated by industrial and Agricultural activities leading to ecological imbalance. However, the restoration of the lost ecology would ensure the establishment of North America’s potential especially from wasted landscapes that eventually ensure Pleistocene rewilding. This would also have some indirect economic implications alongside ethical issues on the basis of where animals are obtained (Jørgensen 482).
For example, several areas within the United States of America face problems due to the increasing population of deer. This is attributable to lack of predators that would in an actual sense control the population of the herbivores (Smit et al. 134). The high populations of the deer have led to the destruction of forest vegetation as well as the spread of diseases through ticks from the deer (Smit et al. 142). The destruction of the predators that led to this problem such as mountain lions and wolves was due to human activities that led to the shrinking of the forest habitats. This led to a reduction of the large areas that the predators required to thrive, therefore, destroying the top-down species control effects that help in regulation of the world. It is against this backdrop that this study seeks to establish the rewilding of North America that would identify the requirements necessary for the restoration of the health of the ecosystem.
1.3 Objectives of the Study
General Objective of the study is to identify the major discursive components of the concept of rewilding.
Specific objectives
* To assess the factors perceived necessary in promoting Pleistocene rewilding in North America
* To develop an appropriate model necessary for rewilding North America
1.4 Research questions
* What are some of the factors that promote the discursive concept of rewilding discourse
* What are some of the factors that promote Pleistocene rewilding?
* Which model seems appropriate for the rewilding of North America?
2.0 Theoretical Framework
The chapter on theoretical framework provides some of the theories applicable in this research study. The theories as discussed under this chapter help in the provision of appropriate dimension through which the topic can be examined theoretically. This study identifies two main theories which include: Social Constructionism as well as Discourse Theory.
2.1 Applied Theories
2.1.1 Social Constructionism
This theory explains the ontological as well as the epistemological perspectives of nature. The constructionist perspective on reality focuses on the fact that it is a function of human activities. There is the tendency of individual’s invention of components of reality that they encounter through life. In this case, constructionists subscribe to the fact that objective reality cannot be fully explained especially when it is independent of human interpretation. Such a perspective is contrary to the positivist view on reality. The human understanding of reality results from their nature of interaction with past experiences that shapes their beliefs and knowledge towards a given phenomenon (Kim 16).
The concept of social constructionism is applicable in the development of various definitions that pertains to nature conservation as well as rewilding. The constructionists majorly focus on the idea of social construction of nature that shows the intrinsic meaning of nature with the help of both social and environmental factors. The perception of environmental proponents on the philosophical approach concerning environmental conservation may produce instances of negativity towards conservation. The process of deconstruction nature conservation discourses has portrayed constructionists as anti-conservationists. Consequently, the widespread criticism towards the existing environmental concepts and ideas has been perceived as the catalyst to destructive forces against the environment (Kim 16). From the context of this research, the constructionist perspective considers the definitions of key ecosystem phenomena. The exploration of different meanings and interpretations of the concepts of this research principle is done in accordance with the constructionist paradigm. Therefore, every description is considered a collaborative entity rather than a separate phenomenon in an attempt to define nature conservation.
2.1.2 Discourse Theory
This theory is defined from a constructionist paradigm perspective. In this case, there is the belief that discourses lead to knowledge on reality as described by people. Importantly, discourses result from the discursive practices. The several definitions of reality from different authors consent to the fact that reality is constructed from the multiplicity of different competing discourses that eventually reveals channels of communication that generate knowledge. Language is largely considered as a good channel that can be used in framing the state of certain phenomena and at the same time used in the creation of political conflicts. Such a perspective has made discourse theory to be widely accepted in the field of social sciences for many years. This makes it possible for nature to be considered as a socially constructed discourse. However, there have been many changes that pertain to nature-related discourses that can be identified in science and daily lives (Hallett and Kaplan-Weinger 12).
Some of the discourses of nature exist within the scientific activities of ecology as well as in the domains of conservation biology. One aspect of older discourse considers nature as a phenomenon that possesses dynamic equilibrium and in most cases subject to interference from human activities. The most recent discourse considers nature as a state of flux that does not relate to climax. However, there is an assumption that the existing differences are visible across every ecological practice depending on the dominant nature discourse. The various competing discourses of nature conservation include conservation and preservation, preservation and harmonization, materialism, ethical and resourcism discourses (Hallett and Kaplan-Weinger 10). Theoretically, discourse analysis theory is identified to have a good background in nature conservation literatures. Therefore, this study would rely on discourse analysis for the purposes of obtaining a relevant framework to enhance theoretical understanding.
Considering the various building blocks of different discourses, this study considered discourse on nature conservation under discursive components. Such fundamental component of any given component provides a clear perspective on the existing similarity and differences amongst the discourses. For instance (Hallett and Kaplan-Weinger 20) analyses ecological as well as technological discourses on the basis of existing differences in place, environmental relationships, time, people and society. With the help of social constructionist perspective, these components can as well be considered as social constructs.
2.2 Theoretical Description of Discursive Components
2.2.1 Conceptualization of the (Wild) Nature
From the historical perspective, the revelation on nature-human relations and the factors that have shaped the co-existence makes it possible the understanding of the background of any phenomena. Such relations between human and nature has been disruptive over decades and varies significantly in terms of time and space. The diversity in human revolution results into the different environmental conditions and history that ideally affects the elaborate understanding of nature (Derham et al. 2). The Age of Enlightenment provides a good foundation on the conceptualization of nature through the Western perspective. This has predominantly proved to be the perspective through which nature is perceived in the era of industrialization to-date within some spheres of nature. Further, the Romantic protest that took place in the 19th and 20th centuries also shaped the human view on nature. This marked the booming growth of industrial cities that was seen to be lifeless and intimidating. The Romantic Movement with its roots in Europe necessitated similar movement in the United States that conceived the idea of the restoration of nature and development on the concept of wilderness (Derham et al. 9).
The concept of wilderness is considered relevant especially in the development of nature conservation. Importantly, the environmentalist movement of the 20th century emerged from the heavy reliance of the rhetoric as well as the existing vocabulary from the Romantic period (Adams 108). The dawn of the nature conservation in different regions that includes the United States, Canada, and Australia is borne out of contemporary public opinion on wild nature.
1 Research Methodology
1 Study Approach
This study adopts the qualitative research approach, particularly the Discourse Analysis (DA) method. The use of qualitative research methodology underlies the assumption that participants undertake an active role applicable in the construction of social reality, referred to as the ontological stance of the paradigm on social constructionism. A good example as provided by (Boeije 11) indicates that qualitative research focuses on the construction of reality from an individual perspective through the use of words, specific arguments as well as language. From the perspective of this research qualitative research involves the application of a set of procedures that ensures relational deductions from textual data (Baxter and Jack 544). Importantly, the use of qualitative analysis helps in the understanding of values, feelings as well as perceptions that influence behavior.
The adoption of Discourse Analysis aims at analyzing the Rewilding discourse as well as providing specific solutions to research questions. The sources of information, in this case, entail electronically provided written texts. However, retrieving detailed information on the nature of discourse requires complete differentiation between scholarly articles and popular references (Baxter and Jack 544).
2 Discourse analysis
It is important to note that the DA approach involves the analysis of language applicable in enacting social perspectives. The DA methodology fits well in the social constructionist tradition that defines social science. The reality as socially constructed focuses on the analysis of meaning whereby the importance is not on nature as a phenomenon but the meaning that the society perceives of it (Hajer and Versteeg 175). DA functions on the assumption that the use of a language is capable of shaping people’s world view. In this case, the use of metaphors plays a crucial role especially in providing conservation terminologies used in non-academic literature. Such metaphors shape people’s thinking towards ecology and ecosystem (Barua 1427). The meanings of terms as provided by scientists create meaning on various conservation practices, therefore, providing a conducive context for discussion of issues surrounding ecosystem.
The application of DA helps in the revelation of how certain phenomena meanings evolve under particular settings. Such advantage of DA could be applicable in answering the research questions on this study. This qualifies DA as a relevant methodology applicable in the analysis of new aspects on nature conservation such as Rewilding. The various approaches of DA relevant to this study include the Argumentative Discourse Analysis (ADA) and the Discourse-Historical Approach (DHA) (Wodak and Meyer 60).
3 Data collection
Data was collected from scholarly texts. In this case, “texts” as defined by Wodak and Meyer (67), refers to “Materially durable products of linguistic actions.” The application of DA considers selected sources of information such as literary texts (books, scientific articles as well as websites). The verbal texts entail public presentations as well as interviews, and literary texts are obtained from internet sources. The scientific literature for this study was gathered by use of search engines such as Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, JStore, and EBSCO. Some of the popular publications were obtained through Google Search and entail information on project websites, books, journals, and news articles. The process of search used the term “Rewilding” as the primary keyword on nature conservation. The selection was done by identifying the texts that relates to nature conservation (Wodak and Meyer 67).
4 Data analysis
1 Analysis of Discursive components
The analysis of the discursive components gives solution to the research questions of this study. Information from this process leads to the next analytical stage that gives the general analysis of discourse formulation. As previously mentioned in this study, discourse on Rewilding comprises of “discursive components.” These discursive components in accordance to this study include conceptualization of nature, practicality for nature conservation, and human imperative. This leads to the deconstruction of the discursive components for the purposes of analysis of each one of them. At this point, there are a number of questions stemming from the theoretical literature that are identified with regard to each discursive component. These questions are based on discourse analysis principles. Some of the questions applicable as the starting points on the process of formulating discursive components on Rewilding discours...