Modern Chinese Literature and Film: Labor, Production, and Reproduction

LABOR, PRODUCTION, AND REPRODUCTION
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Abstract
Sexism and gender discrimination are traits that have haunted Chinese women for a long time. Exacerbated by Confucian traditional beliefs, it has been quite a struggle for Chinese women to break loose from patriarchal society and demand their space in modern literature. This research paper explores the challenges and achievements of the liberation of Chinese women.
WOMEN IN MODERN CHINESE LITERATURE AND FILM
Women in our society have been facing numerous challenges overtime on their gender orientation. Society is fashioned to be patriarchal, and every newborn from either gender is born with the intrinsic knowledge that men are superior to women. It is a culture that both women and moderate men have been trying to admonish to achieve gender parity. Sexism and gender discrimination have clouded womanhood right from classical times to the modern-day world. In their quest to break free from these oppressive shackles and bondage, women worldwide have tried fighting for their space in the male-dominated society in different avenues: literature, film, activism, and even sports. Sexism is a ghost that has haunted women in the community for ages. It has been the major setback in their drive to achieve self-actualization and make decisions that affect society.
Many scholars and researchers have weighed in on the discourse, trying to give their standpoints on modalities of achieving that ever-elusive equality. Tremendous progress towards attaining that equilibrium has been gained but not to its optimal realization. As opposed to other forms of prejudices characterized by negative stereotypes and antipathy, ambivalent sexism theory (Glick & Fiske, 1996) states that deep ambivalence results from intimate connections between women and men. The approach further highlights that coexistence of power differences and healthy interdependence between the genders arise to hostile (hostile sexism) and benevolent (benevolent sexism) attitudes towards each other (Glick & Fiske, 1996, 2001).[Glick, P., & Fiske, S. T. (1996). The Ambivalent Sexism Inventory: Differentiating hostile and benevolent sexism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70(3), 491-512.] [Glick, P., & Fiske, S. T. (2001a). Ambivalent Sexism. In Advances in experimental social psychology, 33, 115-188.]
Albeit a universal problem facing women everywhere irrespective of cultural background, from western imperial countries to socialist east countries, Chinese women have faced the worst episodes of sexism and gender discrimination over the years. It is a complex trait that becomes entangled in Confucianism, an inherent Chinese cultural practice that molds an individual right from childhood to adulthood. It has become a challenging topic to tackle until the present day because of its innate approach; even women who should be in the frontline to fight and condemn sexism often find themselves at crossroads going against Confucianism doctrines, which degrade a woman to marriage and childbearing. Feminists, since the emergence of feminist consciousness in the 1970s, aptly describe Confucianism as a misogynous ideology that is incapable of self-redemption regarding gender parity. Therefore, for a Chinese woman to be liberated, it is vital to eradicate Confucianism and adopt liberal western ideologies like Liberalism, Marxist-socialism, or existentialism.
Women’s problem has been at the center stage of modern China, and equally, the women who tried to venture into literature. Right from early publications like “Literary History of Chinese Women” (Zhongguo funü wenxue shi) by Xie Wuliang in 1920, discourses have arisen on women’s issues in the literary space. The famous May Fourth Movement marked a landmark revolution in modern China women’s emancipation and gave them an empowered voice in society. During this period, which spanned from 1915 to 1937 and years after, renewed interests regarding women’s literary works emerged, which informed literature intellectuals like Lu Xun, of Chinese women’s challenges. In the subsequent publications and fictional film productions and literature, women got extensive coverage in articles and their literature published in the urban press.
A Norwegian playwright in the late 19th century, Henrik Ibsen indicates the challenges in the emancipation of women worldwide in his famous play, “A Doll’s House.” It is a play that has been relived for decades in urging women to break free from the bondage and shackles of the patriarchal society. The lead cast in the play, Nora, has inspired and encourages women to soldier on in their quest for freedom. Ibsen depicts Nora as the emancipated individualist alternative. She is an embodiment of a glorified woman who challenges the status quo and opposes all sexist social dogmas. In the end, Ibsen charismatically ends the play with the sound of a door slamming shut by Nora. It is a symbolic portrayal of Nora leaving her marriage and breaking free into an uncertain future of self-actualization free of patriarchy.
A Doll’s House was received in China with much enthusiasm like everywhere else in the world. It came in at the opportune moment, during the May Fourth Movement of 1919, which involved mass demonstrations by students. It was translated into the local language with the hope of igniting and accelerating women’s emancipation. Still, such liberation’s limits became apparent, and an exercise in futility as some Chinese intellectuals questioned the liberation’s viability. The rejection of the play’s message in China followed the trend of its dismissal in some western cultures. Notably, in Lu Hsiiri’s 1923 essay, he posed, “What Happens After Nora Leaves?” He critiqued individualistic approach by Nora towards a spiritual emancipation. We deduce from the criticism of how an individualistic liberation can be problematic when it is not economically or politically instigated.
Ibsen’s “A Doll House” was to propel the practically possible Chinese emancipation Revolution of May Fourth. Nora’s characterization gave the Chinese women an impetus to be self-conscious and fight for their space as they would not be handed over the liberation on a silver platter. During the revolution period, China tried to break loose from the oppressive chains of Confucius traditional morality. China was right on its way, striving to achieve the new order-replacing the old with the new. The introduction of Ibsen’s works through the Chinese intellectuals’ discovery was just a boost to a course they had charted its path long ago. The Chinese had advanced revolutions even before the coming of A Doll’s house into their space. The anti-dynastic Revolution of 1911 set up a more intolerable and conscious China towards oppressive political regimes. In as much as China had started revolt much earlier, it is only fair to add that Ibsen brought more consciousness and awareness about the plague that had been ailing Chinese women for so long. However, not much can be said about the Confucius tradition.
In the May Fourth conscious China, the newly emerging literary intellectuals adopted Ibsenism because his concepts reflected their hopes for new China and quashed the moribund traditional beliefs. A vision of alternative selfhood in the contemporary consciousness that was already dormant was resuscitated by introducing “A Doll’s House in the Chinese culture.
In embracing his works, the Chinese intellectuals coined the term Ibsenism during the May Fourth Movement. Their main avenue of communication became New Youth magazine of (1915-1922), culminating 54 publications. The magazine was biased, with only two significant issues (the Ibsen issue of 1918 and the Marx issue of May 1919) during its seven-year print period. The two were important in shaping and molding the new anticipated China from the revolutionaries’ perspectives. Marxism model in a political organization -the Marxist-socialism was deemed appropriate for the China political change, while Ibsenism invoked the much desired spiritual needs of the Revolution.
Through the New Youth magazine, Hu Shih’s essay introduced the 1918 special Ibsenism issue, which pioneered individualism definition in the Chinese context. In this witty Ibsenism issue release, Hu Shih presents Nora as a symbol of the “why&rdq...