Hospital Acquired infections
The Research Paper: First Draft
Assessment Traits
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Assessment Description
Using the references you identified in the module 1, write a first draft of your paper in 2,500-3,000 words.
Include Abstract, Introduction, Methods, Results, Discussion, Conclusions, and References sections and headings.
Refer to one of the journal references you are using and copy its writing style/format rather than APA (You can also typically go to the journal’s home page and find links to their exact rules). Identify which journal format you are using on the title page.
APA style is not required, but solid academic writing is expected.
You are required to submit this assignment to LopesWrite. A link to the LopesWrite technical support articles is located in Class Resources if you need assistance.
Please use the below Annotated Bibliography
---Annotated Bibliography----- Hospital Acquired infections
Hospital-acquired infections, also known as healthcare-associated infections (HAIs), the definition of theses infections are acquired after hospitalization and appear within 48 hours of hospitalization. Healthcare-related infections have high morbidity and mortality rates. Infection prevention and control affect all aspects of health care, including hand hygiene, surgical site infections, injection safety, antimicrobial resistance, and how hospitals operate during and outside emergencies (Mehta, et al., 2014). Patient safety is the priority, and it is the responsibility of all healthcare providers. Many pieces of evidence showing interventions for hospital-acquired infections are available, and these infections are preventable. Guidelines and policies for preventing and controlling HAI need to be developed and implemented. This paper is to focus on the importance and prevention of hospital-acquired infections.
Annotated Bibliography
Mun, S. J., Kim, S.-H., Kim, H.-T., Moon, C., & Wi, Y. M. (2022). The epidemiology of bloodstream infection contributing to mortality: the difference between community-acquired, healthcare-associated, and hospital-acquired infections. BMC Infectious Diseases, 22(1), 336. https://doi-org(dot)lopes(dot)idm(dot)oclc(dot)org/10.1186/s12879-022-07267-9
This research was done by Mun et al. (2022) in two teaching hospitals. It seeks to understand the true burden of bloodstream infections (BSIs) and the pathogens responsible for mortality. They argue that understanding the epidemiology of BSI that contributes to mortality and its susceptibility patterns can help to better understand BSI and to prioritize infection control and institutional or national antibiotic policies. The study shows the number of patients with hospital-acquired infections, the number of patients per infection, and the number of patients with blood-borne infections (BSIs). The number of patients who died due to severe disease during the study period. The study also noted the percentage of pathogens associated with mortality from hospital-acquired infections and bloodstream infections (BSIs). This is essential for infection prevention and antibiotic stewardship programs.
Abumettleq, I. S. S., & Bayraktar, N. (2021). Nurses' awareness on hospital acquired infection risks of the geriatric patients: A descriptive and cross-sectional study. Journal of Infection in Developing Countries, 15(4), 552–558. https://doi-org(dot)lopes(dot)idm(dot)oclc(dot)org/10.3855/jidc.11885
An increasing number of people over the age of 65 constitute a specific group of people at risk of nosocomial and other healthcare-associated infections. Nosocomial infections are a significant problem in terms of morbidity and mortality, prolonged hospital stays, and increased costs. Nurses play an important role in preventing patients from developing healthcare-associated infections. This study aimed to determine nurses' perceptions of the risk of hospital-acquired infection in elderly patients. The study provides evidence that nurses lack knowledge about specific at-risk age groups and the need for a comprehensive, systematic, and ongoing education program to increase nurses' awareness of healthcare-associated infections.
D’Oliveira, R. A. C., Pereira, L. C. D., Codes, L., Rocha, M. de S., & Bittencourt, P. L. (2022). Analysis of Healthcare Associated and Hospital Acquired Infections in Critically Ill Patients with Cirrhosis. Arquivos de Gastroenterologia, 59(1), 102–109. https://doi-org(dot)lopes(dot)idm(dot)oclc(dot)org/10.1590/S0004-2803.202200001-18
The study focused on patients with cirrhosis admitted to an intensive care unit that specializes in liver and gastrointestinal disease. The study assessed the frequency of infection along with drug-resistance microorganisms and their impact on the development of complications such as acute kidney injury, hepatorenal syndrome, acute-on-chronic liver failure, sepsis, and mortality. According to the study, 43-59% of cirrhotic patients admitted to intensive care had developed bacterial infections, which affect morbidity and mortality. Increased frequency of healthcare-associated (HCA) and hospital-acquired (HA) infections in patients with cirrhosis affects patient survival and prognosis. This study provides evidence that patients with immune suppression have a higher risk of healthcare-associated infections and increased mortality.
Cole, K. L., Kurudza, E., Rahman, M., Kazim, S. F., Schmidt, M. H., Bowers, C. A., & Menacho, S. T. (2022). Use of the 5-factor modified frailty index to predict hospital-acquired infections and length of stay among neurotrauma patients undergoing emergent craniotomy/craniectomy. World Neurosurgery, 164. https://doi(dot)org/10.1016/j.wneu.2022.05.122
Traumatic brain injury is an important public health problem that is often complicated by hospital-acquired infections (HAIs). According to the study, neurotrauma patients after craniectomy/craniotomy had complications of HAI, resulting in longer hospital stays and higher healthcare costs. The study focused on multiple factors that may increase patients' risk of hospital-acquired infections. Age is often used to determine the risk of postoperative complications, such as hospital-acquired infections. However, according to the study, frailty was a better predictor of surgery or medical intervention risk than age alone. Evidence shows that the frailty assessment provides effective risk stratification in neurosurgery. Studies have demonstrated that hospital-acquired infections in patients with neurotrauma have multiple factors that prolong hospital stays.
Arefian, H., Vogel, M., Kwetkat, A., & Hartmann, M. (2016). Economic Evaluation of Interventions for Prevention of Hospital Acquired Infections: A Systematic Review. PLoS ONE, 11(1), 1–15. https://doi-org(dot)lopes(dot)idm(dot)oclc(dot)org/10.1371/journal.pone.0146381
Hospital-acquired infections are one of the top reasons for patient morbidity and mortality. It is a serious public health problem. In addition, it is a problem that prolongs patients' hospital stays and increases costs to the healthcare system. Urinary tract infections, surgical wound infections, ventilator-associated pneumonia, and primary bloodstream infections are the main types of HAIs. This study reviewed and assessed the quality and economic benefits of HAI prevention interventions. In general, interventions targeting several types of HAIs or HAIs have higher economic benefits than preventive interventions targeting a single type of infection. The study concluded that HAI prevention interventions provide positive cost-benefit estimates, which also provides solid evidence for the importance of HAI prevention interventions.
Hughes, G. J., Nickerson, E., Enoch, D. A., Ahluwalia, J., Wilkinson, C., Ayers, R., & Brown, N. M. (2013). Impact of cleaning and other interventions on the reduction of hospital-acquired Clostridium difficile infections in two hospitals in England assessed using a breakpoint model. Journal of Hospital Infection, 84(3), 227–234. https://doi-org(dot)lopes(dot)idm(dot)oclc(dot)org/10.1016/j.jhin.2012.12.018
"Hospital-acquired infection (HAI) including central vein-associated bloodstream infection (CLABSI), catheter-associated urinary tract infection (CAUTI), surgical site infection (SSI), hospital-acquired pneumonia (HAP), and ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP) and Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) (Monegro et al., 2022)." The study aimed to assess the impact of different infection control interventions. The study found that deep cleaning was consistently associated with a progressive reduction in the incidence of CDI and also found that intensive cleaning has been shown to be effective against other hospital-acquired infections. Hospital-acquired infections include different pathways and organisms, and effective interventions may be based on organisms. However, universal intervention, enhanced cleaning, has been shown to be an effective prevention of hospital-acquired infections.
Mouajou, V., Adams, K., DeLisle, G., & Quach, C. (2022). Hand hygiene compliance in the prevention of hospital-acquired infections: a systematic review. The Journal of Hospital Infection, 119, 33–48. https://doi-org(dot)lopes(dot)idm(dot)oclc(dot)org/10.1016/j.jhin.2021.09.016
one of the most effective and cost-effective strategies for reducing hospital-acquired infections (HAIs)is hand hygiene, which has been a basis and the best strategy for all healthcare facilities. Several infection prevention measures have been implemented to control the acquisition of hospital-acquired (HA) infections, including hand hygiene. The hands of health care workers are considered to be the primary source for the transmission of bacterial pathogens that cause hospital-acquired infections, and it is generally accepted that good hand hygiene compliance (HHC) can significantly reduce hospital-acquired (HA) infections. The focus of this study was to determine hand hygiene compliance rates associated with the lowest incidence of hospital-acquired infections in order to provide evidence for implementing practical hand hygiene compliance goals. The results of this study can provide a reference for healthcare workers to understand the importance of hand hygiene compliance.
Grant, K. L., Wiskirchen, D. E., Wu, U., Grey, M. R., & Eamranond, P. P. (2021). Reducing hospital-acquired infections in a regional health system. Infection Control & Hospital Epidemiology, 42(12), 1542–1544. https://doi(dot)org/10.1017/ice.2020.1347
The study analyzed and found the number of hospital-acquired infections that occurred because of the timing of testing. In addition, the staff lacked knowledge about the importance of early detection and treatment of infections. Patients who develop HAI are often exposed to exogenous infections when they come into contact with healthcare facilities, procedures, staff, visitors, and other patients. The research aims to create an intervention that provides high-quality, safe, and cost-effective healthcare across multiple healthcare settings. The study identified reductions in the Standardized International Ratio (SIR) of HAI as the primary measure of their goal of providing safe healthcare. A best practice bundle, a hand hygiene compliance program, and an environmental cleanliness audit program were implemented as interventions. After the regional standardization of the best practice package, HAI decreased significantly across all hospitals within the regional healthcare system. This study serves as evidence for my thesis that standardization and implementation of infection prevention interventions will significantly reduce hospital-acquired (HA) infections.
Bulmash, B., Ben-Assuli, O., & Amar, M. (2020). Fear of hospital-acquired infections: The combined impact of patient's hygiene sensitivity and perceived staff preventive behavior. Journal of Community Health, 45(6), 1211–1219. https://doi(dot)org/10.1007/s10900-020-00857-1
Proactive behavior assures others, such as visitors or other patients, that medical personnel understand the risks in the environment and take precautions to reduce the risk of infection. As we already know, the hands of health care workers are considered to be the main source of transmission of bacterial pathogens that cause hospital-acquired infections. Hygiene sensitivities and proactive behaviors of healthcare workers can greatly influence hospital-acquired infections. Hygiene sensitivities may prompt hospital visitors to respond differently based on their perceptions of medical staff actively combating infectious diseases. The research is a response to one of the important factors and evidence for the need for employee education.
Sanchez Novas, D., Fernández, M. S., García Guzzo, M. E., Aguilar Avila, L. T., Domenech, G., Bolla, F. E., Terrasa, S. A., García Fornari, G., & Teijido, C. A. (2022). Self-contamination following removal of two personal protective equipment suits: A randomized, controlled, crossover simulation trial. Journal of Hospital Infection, 119, 155–162. https://doi(dot)org/10.1016/j.jhin.2021.09.017
Healthcare providers face a high risk of contamination when caring for infected patients. Healthcare workers must use protective equipment (PPE), such as gloves, disposable gowns, surgical masks, N95s, goggles, shoe covers, and hair covers, to protect patients and themselves. However, self-contamination can occur if the protective equipment (PPE) is not adequately worn or removed. The study used UV fluorescent solutions after staff removed gowns and personal protective equipment (PPE) to find the differences in self-contamination. And the study concluded that self-contamination after removing personal protective equipment (PPE) was greater than after removing gowns. In terms of reducing self-contamination in the arm/hand area, quickly removing gowns and gloves is important. The study shows that employers must provide employees with repeated training sessions and increase knowledge about self-contamination after PPE is removed.
Hospital Acquired Infections
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Abstract
Hospital-acquired infections have been a major healthcare problem since they are associated with high morbidity and mortality rates. Many studies have established the risk factors associated with hospital infections, including frailty, old age, and chronic illnesses. As a serious threat to patient care, modern healthcare organizations must implement policies and preventive measures to fight the problem. Infection prevention and control affect all aspects of health care, including hand hygiene, surgical site infections, injection safety, antimicrobial resistance, and how hospitals operate during and outside emergencies. These are the main elements targeted by the interventions currently being implemented in hospitals. However, infections can be an indicator of poor hygiene and the environment. As such, research findings indicate that both hand and environmental hygiene are the two interventions most likely to yield substantial reductions in HAIs.
Hospital Acquired Infections
Introduction
Background and Problem Statement
Hospital-acquired infections (HAIs) are increasingly becoming a major concern for patient safety in hospitals. Current studies have explored both the prevalence and comorbidity. A study by Mun et al. (2022) reveals that approximately 15.1% of deceased patients in hospitals contracted HAIs within two weeks before their death. According to D’Oliveira et al. (2022), an estimated 34% of the infections observed were HAIs, including urinary tract infections and spontaneous bacterial peritonitis. The population most affected is the patients above the age of 65, as established by Abumettleq and Bayraktar (2021). Therefore, it can be observed that HAIs are a major health concern that should be addressed. Patient safety should be a priority for all hospitals. The current statistics on HAIs indicate a lax in the policies and measures implemented by healthcare organizations to prevent infections.
Arguably, hospitals implement policies based on their evidence regarding specific policy issues. Therefore, the prevalence of the HAIs prompts an exploration of the awareness of the HAIs among nurses and physicians. Several studies have explored the awareness of healthcare organizational members, especially nurses, regarding HAIs. Abumettleq and Bayraktar (2021) established a lack of awareness of the infections. These findings indicate that the first step toward addressing HAIs is developing programs and initiatives to promote awareness among hospital staff. The awareness creation may go beyond acknowledging the existence of the infections and focus on the major causes of HAIs. Current literature has also attempted to address the key risk factors, including frailty and age (Cole et al., 2022). Such studies should also help highlight the initiatives that can be implemented to alleviate the problem of HAIs.
Research Objectives and Questions
With the background provided, it can be established that the primary gap is the lack of policies and initiatives designed to control and prevent Has. Additionally, a lack of awareness of the problem has also been established, which means there is a need to explore why healthcare organizations and their staff members should deliberately address the issue of HAIs. The primary objective of this research is to explore the importance and prevention of HAIs. To achieve this objective, the researcher will highlight the extent to which HAIs are a serious health problem and threat to patient safety. Second, the research will establish the extent to which hospitals are aware of the problem. Lastly, the study will explore prevention mechanism currently implemented and their efficacy. The research questions are as outlined below:
* To what extent are HAIs serious health problems and threats to patient safety?
* How aware are hospitals and their staff regarding the HAIs?
* What preventive measures are currently implemented, and how effectively are they addressing the problem?
Methods
Approach and Philosophy
The researcher adopts a qualitative study, which can be described as research that focuses on the nature of phenomena. Qualitative studies answer the question of why something is or is not observed. In this case, the scholar seeks to explain why HAIs occur and why they pose a problem. Qualitative studies also allow the research to examine a problem from the perspectives of others. Therefore, the subjects of this research will be studied to determine their experiences with the issue. The research philosophy adopted is positivism, which entails an empiricist theory that states that the truth of all genuine knowledge is by definition or positive. Additionally, positivism holds that factual knowledge can be gained by observation and that the social world can be understood objectively.
Research Design
A descriptive research design is adopted for this research since the focus is on obtaining information to describe a phenomenon systematically. In this case, the research questions have been designed to seek to answer the problem and what can be done about it. Specifically, a descriptive analysis is used since it allows an analysis of data to help describe or summarize data points constructively to establish patterns. However, the analysis does not involve statistics since the study approach selected is qualitative.
Data Collection and Analysis
In a qualitative study, textual data is gathered from either primary or secondary sources. This research uses secondary data from past studies examining the research problem and uses a descriptive approach to manipulate the data. The primary collection method will be a systematic literature review, which begins by searching for materials and subjective them to the relevant inclusion criteria. The materials obtained will then be screened for content and relevance before they can be used to provide the data needed. Qualitative thematic analysis will be used as the data analysis method. The rationale is that each research question hints at a specific theme, and the answers to each question will be in the form of describing the particular theme. Therefore, the three pre-determined themes are the nature of HAIs, the threat or comorbidities arising from HAIs, and the preventive measures to address HAIs.
Ethical Considerations
Research efforts often have to consider several ethical issues depending on the nature of the study. In this case, the scholar does not involve human participants, which means such ethical issues as harm, confidentiality, and privacy do not apply. Nevertheless, the use of secondary data raises ethical concerns. The data obtained from past studies will be credited accordingly, and plagiarism requirements will be observed.
Results
Theme 1: Seriousness of HAIs as a Health Problem
The current study has explored three major research questions. The first considers the seriousness of the HAI and how it threatens patient safety. Several studies have been found to address this issue, and the findings are summarized in the table below:
Citation
Key Findings
Implications for Patient Safety
Mun et al. (2022).
* 15.1% of patients contracted HAIs
* Common pathogens include Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, and Klebsiella pneumoniae
* HAIs significantly contribute to patient mortality
Many patients are exposed to infection, which can be described as harm or injury. Mortality is a key outcome of unsafe healthcare conditions. HAIs are a major threat to patient safety.
Abumettleq and Bayraktar (2021)
* Patients over 65 years are mostly affected by HAIs.
* Older adults have defective immune systems.
* Chronic illnesses attract certain HAIs
Elderly patients face greater risks of HAIs, which means diminished patient safety. Problems associated with old age and chronic illnesses increase the risk of HAIs.
D’Oliveira et al. (2022)
* 34% of hospital infections are HAIs.
* HAIs associated with in-hospital mortality.
* HAIs have more adverse outcomes than other infections.
Hospital infections are depicted as a common occurrence, implying diminished patient safety. However, HAIs pose a greater threat to patient safety than other infections since they cause higher mortality rates.
Cole et al. (2022).
* Frailty is a major risk factor for HAIs.
* Age increases the risk of HAIs
This is another study that links old age with HAIs. Focusing on patient safety means acknowledging old age and frailty as major causes of hospital infections.
Table 1: Summary of findings on the seriousness of HAIs as a health problem.
The first theme has been addressed by exploring how serious a problem the HAIs are and how they threaten public safety. The major findings support the idea that hospitals have a high prevalence of HAIs. The prevalence results from several risk factors, including old age, frailty, and chronic illnesses. These findings indicate that HAIs are indeed a serious health issue. One f the major outcomes of HAIs s mortality. This observation insinuates that HAIs are a major threat to patient safety, described in terms of risks, harm, or errors that threaten the well-being and safety of the patients.
Theme 2: Awareness of HAIs
Patient safety is a major concern in the healthcare industry. In an age of evidence-based practice, it can be argued that organizations that are aware of a problem will be more likely to implement corrective measures. The current studies indicate a high prevalence of HAIs, leading to an assumption and hypothesis that nurses and other hospital staff are unaware of the HAIs. The findings on this theme are summarized in the table below:
Citation
Key finding
Implications
Abumettleq and Bayraktar (2021)
* Nurses are inadequately aware of HAIs.
* Education level and experience influence risks of HAIs.
Nurses’ unawareness means they cannot adopt and implement the necessary policies and preventive strategies.
Mouajou et al. (2022)
* Healthcare workers are historically negligent towards hospital infections.
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