Understanding the Epidemiological Surveillance

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Key Surveillance Indicators
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Key Surveillance Indicators
Epidemiological surveillance entails a foundation of immediate and long-term strategies for combating diseases. National authorities are responsible for monitoring illnesses, including identification of causative organisms, assessment of individual cases, and compilation of population-based data. Since infections are inevitable in the population, rapid communication at the international level is critical to attaining set goals. Notably, an outbreak of emerging illness occurs in areas without epidemiological or clinical expertise. In the longer term, disease monitoring correlates with data interpretation regarding climatic variation and other determinants of disease activity. National health authorities utilize laboratory information as a critical dimension of expediting positive diagnoses. The resulting data include asymptomatic infections that add value to estimate the incidence of various infections.
Most countries have implemented specific policies to report human infectious illnesses. For instance, influenza surveillance entails a coordinated international effort with the critical objective of recognizing the emergence of virus strains that exhibit increased virulence or antigenic profiles. In contrast, local surveillance involves using sentinel clinical practices that help report various influenza-like illnesses in real-time (Jerez-Lilo et al., 2021). Emergency departments in hospitals and employers report trends of various forms of respiratory infections. In addition, most hospitals utilize laboratory tests in determining antigenic composition and sensitivity of common antiviral drugs. Surveillance of HIV/AIDS is one of the notable examples of an international operation under the World Health Organization (WHO). In such a case, researchers gather and analyze test data that arise from surveillance programs from other countries.
According to research findings, contact tracing and active case identification are critical in assessing the spread of infection. For instance, researchers are likely to follow up contacts of a case of measles in a measles-free community and offer them prophylaxis consultancy and diagnostic testing. Besides, the government might collaborate with clinicians to isolate individuals suspected of having Covid-19 based on their travel history and clinical presentation (Jerez-Lilo et al., 2021). As a result, they have a chance of managing such contacts in the most effective ways. Finally, in the case of the possibility of coronavirus, clinicians are likely to report and investigate such cases. Surveillance information is available on websites such as the US Center for Disease Control and Prevention and the World Health Organization (WHO).
Surveillance is one of the areas that have outstanding strategic interventions. For that reason, each country should implement a WHO surveillance framework to examine morbidity, mortality, health system capacity, and risk factors/determinants. In such a case, policymakers can integrate the three components of the surveillance framework into the health information system to facilitate monitoring and evaluating illnesses. Public health surveillance is a critical aspect in providing a factual and scientific database that facilitates informed decisions and appropriate public health action. One of the core objectives of surveillance is providing information as guidance to various health interventions. Therefore, public health objectives are critical in determining the design and implementation of the various surveillance systems. If the fundamental goal is to prevent the spread of epidemics, top executives should intervene to prevent infectious illnesses.
HIV/AIDS Surveillance
Surveillance activities act as the cornerstone of public health efforts in controlling the spread of HIV/AIDS. Notably, epidemiological surveillance is an ongoing collection, analysis, and interpretation of critical health data in the planning, implementing, and assessing of public health practices. The surveillance of HIV/AIDS guides public health efforts by providing essential information regarding the trends of the illness and related deaths. Kim et al. (2019, p. 1527) reaffirm that the process helps identify individuals at an increased risk based on geographic, behavioral, and demographic characteristics. Such information is guidance on the development and implementation of disease prevention programs. Besides, clinicians and policymakers alike can utilize derived data to suggest future behavioral and epidemiological research directions while assessing the impact of clinical care and prevention efforts. In such a case, decision-makers can formulate effective policies to prevent the spread of HIV/AIDS.
Besides, surveillance data plays a significant role in facilitating an equitable allocation of social service, prevention funds, and financial resources in various states and large metropolitan areas. The United States initiated a comprehensive system of AIDS surveillance following the identification of the first case in 1981. The various health departments in the country report cases of HIV/AIDS to the Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (Oliveira et al., 2017 p. 51). Notably, surveillance data for the pandemic is the primary basis of assessing changes in the incidence and prevalence of the disease while identifying unmet health needs. Over the years, most governments have realized the need to improve timely diagnosis of AIDS infection while facilitating access to life-extending treatments.
The surveillance definition of HIV/AIDS has changed severally in response to changes in diagnosis and treatment of related symptoms. Such revisions have enhanced the sensitivity and specificity of surveillance definition by enhancing AIDS indicators while incorporating laboratory findings of HIV infection and immunosuppression. In most instances, early advances in HIV/AIDS treatment diminished the capability of surveillance in monitoring the rate of infections. Over the years, the emergence of antiretroviral treatment reduced the surveillance capability in characterizing the HIV/AIDS pandemic. In addition, such advances increase the timespan from the infection stage towards the development of AIDS-defining conditions, making it difficult to estimate the prevalence of infections from surveillance data.
The reports on HIV/AIDS cases provide relevant information regarding recent trends in an epidemic. However, such reports fail to provide an ideal description of the epidemic across the United States. Surveillance of HIV cases represents the minimum estimate of people living with the illness based on testing and treatment. According to Haddad et al. (2019 p. 304), one of the major concerns across the United States is that surveillance of HIV/AIDS can influence at-risk persons to avoid testing and erode the utility of such information. Research findings indicate that name-based reporting has little or no effect on overall HIV testing. However, such reports can prevent some individuals at elevated risk for HIV infection from embracing tests. For that reason, CDC recommends that states provide anonymous testing to ensure that individuals at risk have an opportunity of testing for their status without disclosing their details. Over the years, CDC has embraced the adoption of a model law that protects health-related information against unauthorized acquisition and disclosure as a way of promoting the confidentiality of people living with HIV/AIDS. The implementation of HIV case surveillance has improved the capability of public health agencies in monitoring epidemics and assessing the impact of prevention and treatment services.
Surveillance of Measles
Measles is one of the infections of concern across the United States and other parts of the world as a leading cause of child mortality. The disease stems from the morbillivirus is a contagious respiratory infection. Besides, it is an infectious illness that can affect 90% of unvaccinated individuals exposed before 10 years. For that reason, World Health Organization (WHO) formulated a resolution as a commitment to eliminate the disease by 2015. The risk and spread of measles result from the availability of a susceptible population. Therefore, governments must embrace the need for vaccination to prevent and control the disease. Despite increased sensitization on the need to improve vaccination uptake, the infection cases are still high. A partnership of international organizations, a measles-reduction strategy, and related campaigns are key intervention strategies to prevent the spread of measles across the population. Active surveillance of measles disease is ideal to assure a timely report of suspected cases in the population.
Measles is one of the highly contagious illnesses with characteristics of rash, cough, fever, and malaise among the affected individuals. The disease remains endemic, especially in areas with low rates of vaccination. Since measles is highly contagious, the attack rate is 90% on a global scale. Children, who are too young for vaccination, are some of the population at risk. According to Gastanaduy et al. (2018, p. 2236), people who travel to areas with measles endemic or contact with ill persons are at risk of exposure to the disease. The increased incidence rates indicate the need for more effective strategies to eliminate the illness. For instance, the government should increase awareness of vaccination and immediate case notification to contain the infection. Through active surveillance, the government and clinicians can identify the individuals at an increased risk of exposure or the areas with low vaccination coverage.
A laboratory test is one of the effective ways of determining the presence of measles. Notably, one of the key objectives in the United States has been the elimination of endemic measles since the introduction of the measles vaccine. Measles surveillanc...