Research Son Preference And Gender Inequality In China

Son-Preference and Gender Inequality In China
Scarlett Zhao
Clit 162
Prof. Amar
Date of submission
Son-Preference and Gender Inequality In China
1.0 Introduction
Strong son preference and prevalent discrimination against girls have been linked to birth control practices such as sex ratios that have given rise to gender imbalance. The unwritten rule emanating from such deeply entrenched cultural norms propagate gender inequality that still exists in certain parts of china thus negatively affecting the country’s one child policy. This research paper sets out to investigate the fundamental effects and factors that create, condition or promote son preference and gender inequality in China. The paper will investigate the perceptions of rural Chinese with regard to son preference and gender inequality, and how these perceptions impact on their fertility and sex preferences. Finally, the paper will evaluate how different agents and institutions have and continue to shape the status of women in a quest to achieve gender balance and the progress made by the Chinese government toward achieving gender equality, and how China compares to other nations on the subject of gender equality.
2.0 Thesis Statement
Although China has made substantive structural and policy progress towards eradication of son preference and addressing gender inequality, factors such as son inheritance tradition, social welfare security, death rituals performance and economic support roles have continued to propagate son preference and gender inequality particularly in rural rather than urban China. This paper discusses some implications of son specific fertility behaviors that have and continues to promote son preference and gender inequality in China.
3.0 Gender Inequality & Son Preference: Overview
The Chinese government has made significant progress in addressing issues of gender inequality since the Beijing conference. However, it has emerged that institutional reforms alone cannot address son preference issues. This tradition is deeply entrenched in China’s patriarchal culture as it’s linked to the communist and Confucius ideologies that created the Chinese family, institutional and governance structures. Thus the gender power relations subject has remained elusive due to the fact that the Chinese society is largely patriarchal. The institutional reforms that china has made are steps in the right direction; however, son-preference that relates to the gender equality cannot be achieved through such efforts.[Wang, Wendy. "Son Preference and Educational Opportunities of Children in China--"I Wish You were a Boy!"." Gender Issues 22, no. 2 (Spring, 2005): 3-30.]
Some of the factors that have shaped the son-preference discourse in the post Maoist china encompass Confucianism that largely emerged from Confucian teachings on gender roles. Despite institutionalization of gender equality in the Mao era, son preference remains a prevalent phenomenon in most parts of China. This inherent gender imbalance was further exacerbated by China’s one-child policy and subsequently, the practice of sex-selective abortion. Due to the government’s implementation of one-child policy, various practices aimed at propagating male dominance such as sex-selective technology became widespread. As a result, sex ratio at birth rose fundamentally, thus causing a misconception among researchers that the situation could have been occasioned by a parental decision to either keep or not keep the fetus based on its gender.[Jackson, Stevi, Jieyu Liu, and Juhyun Woo. East Asian sexualities: modernity, gender and new sexual cultures. London: Zed, 2008. pp. 1–30.] [Nundy, Madhurima. "Book Review: Leftover Women: The Resurgence of Gender Inequality in ChinaFincherLeta Hong, Leftover Women: The Resurgence of Gender Inequality in China (London: Zed Books, 2014), pp. 214]
4.0 One Son Preference Tradition In China
Son preference is closely related to patrilineal family system that is widespread in most eastern and Asian countries. Different studies suggest that preferences for sons are more prevalent in rural Asia than in urban Asia, a scenario that could be linked to increased modernization and impressive progress in bridging the educational inequality gap. Most notably, china has attracted more international attention due to different state policies that were institutionalized with the view of promoting son preference. Son preference is more pronounced in rural china where women consider sons to be more important than daughters for reasons such as the notion and cultural believe that it’s the sons who can provide parental support particularly in old age. The notion is more prevalent among low income Chinese as compared to their high income counterparts. Preference for sons has been further propagated by the practice of ancestral worship, even though its practice is inversely proportional to educational achievement. It’s the practice of son preference that has continued to promote gender inequality, as boys are considered more precious and important than girl’s right from birth. This inequality is then propagated throughout the educational system which places more emphasis on boy rather than girl achievement. Nevertheless, different factors continue to impede son preference, especially in the post-modern china. These factors include educational equality, economic independence and male participation in house chores. Some studies suggest that son preference in china can be linked to sex specific infant mortality rates that are rampant in rural china as compared to urban china. Son preference in china continues to discriminate and prejudice women right from the family, school and later in the workplace. Consequently, female infants and girls have the highest mortality rates as they are accorded less importance and preference. Son-preference and gender inequality have a causal relationship as it’s the former that is the source of the later. Although the impact of son preference on female infant mortality, fertility and sex ratios are well articulated, gender inequality remains a reality in modern china. This phenomenon can be attributed to the fact that gender inequality is not only institutionalized, but entrenched in the Chinese cultural fabric.[POSTON JR, DUDLEY,L. "SON PREFERENCE AND FERTILITY IN CHINA." Journal of Biosocial Science 34, no. 3 (07, 2002): 333-47] [Loh, Charis and Elizabeth J. Remick. "China's Skewed Sex Ratio and the One-Child Policy." The China Quarterly 222, (06, 2015): 295-319] [POSTON JR, DUDLEY,L. "SON PREFERENCE AND FERTILITY IN CHINA." Journal of Biosocial Science 34, no. 3 (07, 2002): 333-47] [Li, Jianghong and William Lavely. "Village Context, Women's Status, and Son Preference among Rural Chinese Women." Rural Sociology 68, no. 1 (03, 2003): 87-106.]
Some previous studies have linked the son preference phenomenon to socio-cultural and economic factors which are fundamentally founded on the ancient traditional Confucius and Mencius values. Similarly, the high rate of female infanticide has been associated to the influence of son preference among many rural Chinese. Son preference thus could be an indicator of deeply rooted cultural norms that could ultimately be eroded by increased modernization. Despite China’s concerted effort in dealing with gender inequality, the problem remains unresolved. Through public and institutional policy initiatives, the Chinese government has made substantive progress in spite of embedded social, economic and cultural challenges that have inhibited the progress. Perhaps, this could suggest the need for a more focused policy approach that confronts the issue right from the source as gender inequality is directly linked to son preference.[Khan, Azizur Rahman., and Carl Riskin. Inequality and poverty in China in the age of globalization. Oxford: Oxford University, 2001.] [POSTON JR, DUDLEY,L. "SON PREFERENCE AND FERTILITY IN CHINA." Journal of Biosocial Science 34, no. 3 (07, 2002): 333-47]
Son preference dates back to the pre-historic China. It’s considered to have been conceived from Confucius teachings, and particularly the Confucius values that underscored male dominance. The Confucius system was largely based on patriarchal family system which compelled women to be obedient and submissive to male dominance right from the family, marriage and beyond. Thus this phenomenon exemplifies the advent of male dominance in rural China. One of the important perceptions that propagate son preference is the notion that it’s only sons who possess the potential to proliferate the family lineage. This could have been reinforced by the fact that the Chinese monarch is exclusively male dominated. In fact, Mencius, a student of Confucius once asserted that the most derogatory thing a man can face is to lack a son. It may be that this Confucius belief could have been disseminated to the modem generation and thus still influence fertility and sex issues in modern china. Son preference had economic implications since the ancient Chinese society was largely agricultural based and hence sons were considered an enviable asset in providing farm labor. Moreover, it was considered that only sons provided financial security given that there was no formal social security or welfare system to support the elderly.[Jin, Xiaoyi, Shuzhuo Li, and Marcus W. Feldman. "Marriage Form and Son Preference in Rural China: An Investigation in Three Counties*." Rural Sociology 72, no. 4 (12, 2007): 511-536.] [Wang, Wendy. "Son Preference and Educational Opportunities of Children in China--"I Wish You were a Boy!"." Gender Issues 22, no. 2 (Spring, 2005): 3-30]
Although the communist party introduced a raft of policy measures aimed at curbing son preference and related consequences such as high female infanticide, cultural perceptions on gender imbalance are still deeply entrenched in the Chinese society. The Communist Party introduced measures such as women rights protection, incorporation of gender equality in matrimonial arrangements, denunciation of male dominance and Confucius values. The recent economic transformation witnessed in most parts of China has significantly contributed to the enhancement of the position of women and girls, even though men still enjoy unfettered dominance. China’s transformation from a predominantly informal agricultural sector to an industrialized economy has allowed more women to be absorbed into formal employment. The gradual change from traditional farming in rural China to a more formalized and industrialized sector has eroded son preference tradition in urban China, even though the impact on rural communities has been insignificant.[Ling, Minhua. "Precious Son, Reliable Daughter: Redefining Son Preference and Parent-Child Relations in Migrant Households in Urban China." The China Quarterly 229, (03, 2017): 150-171.] [Jin, Xiaoyi, Shuzhuo Li, and Marcus W. Feldman. "Marriage Form and Son Preference in Rural China: An Investigation in Three Counties*." Rural Sociology 72, no. 4 (12, 2007): 511-536.]
Though China has made significant progress in bridging the gender inequality gap through social, economic and structural transformation, the challenge remain how to change parental values that still promote son preference. Recent studies indicate that in spite of the communist government’s efforts, China remains a patriarchal society with male dominance right from the family setup, society into institutional and government leadership. China’s one child policy that was institutionalized by the communist government could have a role in continued propagation of gender inequality. Given the cultural belief in the supremacy of male children over female children, the one child policy that requires married couples to obtain a one child certificate can be associated to the high infanticide and female mortality rates. This policy could be contributing to female discrimination right from infancy, since chances are that parents with a son are more likely to opt for abortion as compared to those without. Recent studies have further indicated that education is a contra value to son preference since education has been found to diminish parental choice for son preference. The son preference belief has not only exacerbated female mortality, but it has further promotes unequal sex ratios and widespread gender gaps in education. Some studies have indicated gender bias right from the household level where boys are more favored than girls.[Davis, Deborah, and Sara Friedman. Wives, husbands, and lovers: marriage and sexuality in Hong Kong, Taiwan, and urban China. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2014.] [Loh, Charis and Elizabeth J. Remick. "China's Skewed Sex Ratio and the One-Child Policy." The China Quarterly 222, (06, 2015): 295-319.] [Berna, Ioana-Bianca. "Democracy and Gender Inequality in China." Journal of Research in Gender Studies. January 01, 2013. Accessed November 01, 2017.]
In spite of a slight reduction in son preference levels due to the communist party’s effort to empower and raise women status through socio-economic inclusion, the prevalence of the tradition has intensified particularly due to progressive economic reforms that begun in 1980s. The gradual erosion of social collectivism and the emergence of capitalistic ideals have turned the focus of social welfare and economic security back to the family unit. In particular, the decline in social security support systems in rural china could have had its roots in decollectivisation that underscores the importance of sons as social security providers. Decollectivisation in rural china, especially in the 1980s restored the social and economic security back to the family. This increased the son preference incidence that had declined after community party gender equality structural and policy initiatives. Social welfare security is still largely perceived as a male rather than a female role, as it owes its roots to the Confucius gender values that defined women roles as subordinate. Female roles were specifically delineated as wives and mothers. Consequently, the re-emergence of Confucius gender stereotypes could have served to reinforce the son preference belief. Another factor that promotes son preference is the birth control policy that begun in 1970s. The significance of son-bearing has a direct effect on sex preference that underlies gender inequality and the rising problem of sex ratios. Although son preference is a culturally rooted phenomenon, it may not necessarily imply that female children are unwanted. Son preference impedes the government’s birth control efforts and one child policy as couples who have no son are more likely to violet it. Perhaps, it is the patriarchal cultural setting that continues to promote the imperative of son-bearing. The importance of sons has been identified as either economic encompassing male labor or old age social security, continuity if the family lineage and ritual performance.The government’s birth control policy could finally erode the perceived importance of sons. Moreover, the recent socio-economic transformation witnessed in most parts of China could have adverse effect on son preference. However, this transformation is important as it has the potential to raise the income of rural women, and similarly their education opportunities. These developments would thus negate the economic significance of a son even though the rural communities may not be quickly affected. The other fundamental factor that could inhibit speedy decline in son preference is the persistence of virilocal residence and a belief that it’s only sons who should inherit family property. These perceptions have played a major role in the propagation of gender imbalance. Son preference is deeply rooted in china’s patrilineal family system that has survived collectivism and government gender equality programs and campaigns. Nevertheless, this phenomenon is disseminated by social economic conditions that either ellevate men or subordinate women.[Jin, Xiaoyi, Shuzhuo Li, and Marcus W. Feldman. "Marriage Form and Son Preference in Rural China: An Investigation in Three Counties*." Rural Sociology 72, no. 4 (12, 2007): 511-536.] [Nundy, Madhurima. "Book Review: Leftover Women: The Resurgence of Gender Inequality in China Fincher Leta Hong, Leftover Women: The Resurgence of Gender Inequality in China pp. 214, £14.99, ISBN: 978-1-78032-921-5] [Shen, Ke , Feng Wang, and Yong Cai. "Patterns of inequalities in public transfers by gender in China ." Redirecting. Accessed November 01, 2017.] [Jin, Xiaoyi, Shuzhuo Li, and Marcus W. Feldman. "Marriage Form and Son Preference in Rural China: An Investigation in Three Counties*." Rural Sociology 72, no. 4 (12, 2007): 511-53...