Gender and International Relations. Theoretical perservatives

GENDER AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
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GENDER AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
The word gender is usually used interchangeably with the term sex. However, the two terms can be distinguished by looking at sex as a biological determining factor and gender like a social construction. There is indeed a diversity of both personal and social identities between males and females. An examination of the social creation of both femininity and masculinity indicates that a power association exists where women are underrepresented and also where gender differences are politicized. The issue of gender identity remains a contested issue as individuals seek to bolster traditional and normalized approaches to the arena of international politics and eventually international relations. Freedom cannot be attained unless women have been emancipated from the various forms of oppression. The ability of citizens to participate in public affairs is the core of democracy. With globalization, more countries are moving towards democratic forms of leadership. Despite the progress, the contribution of women in democracy and specifically in the positions of leadership has remained limited. For the full participation of all citizens in democratic societies, both men and women must take an active role in politics and other positions of power. Although all individuals need to participate in the political affairs of their nations, men have dominated the politics and other positions of power.[Aikhenvald, Alexandra. "Gender and noun class." Walter de Gruyter, 2004.]
For a long time, the term ‘power’ has been associated with masculinity. The attributes of power, rationality, and strength have been associated with the man, while the women have been displayed as weaker weak, inferior and emotionally charged. It is indeed true that men and women are different regarding anatomy, hormones, and genetics. However, these factors have led to the emergence of different perceptions about the functions, roles, and identities of both men and women. A majority of the political thinkers have categorized politics as a male enterprise which hinders women from participating in national activities and political endeavors. Such a way of thinking considers women as ‘inherent soft’ and lacking rational thinking which makes them remain in subordinate positions where men can dominate them. The prevailing ideas about gender are applicable in the International Relations (IR). An analysis of the differentiation between the two genders lead to the question: Why are women underrepresented in politics, and power positions?[Krook, Mona Lena. "Why are fewer women than men elected? Gender and the dynamics of candidate selection." Political Studies Review 8, no. 2 (2010): 155-168.]
Theoretical perservatives
In order to understand international relations, one requires to be well versed with various theories. Theories are essential because they assist in understanding the general patterns, and in this case, regarding human behavior and individuals interact with each other. Scholars in the field of international relations have developed various theories to make it easier to comprehend the questions in the discipline. In particular, feminist scholars have questioned the existence of acute margin of women from the preview of international relations and politics. They are also concerned why the issue of gender becomes integral in the analysis of international relations.
* Freud’s psychoanalysis
Freud’s psychodynamic approach categorized women as the weaker sex. Freud held that females’ penis envy made them inferior to their male counterparts. Fred also indicated that females were disposed to developing weaker superegos and were prone to anxiety than males. Freudian assumptions of women as the weaker sex regarded men as the forerunners of rational judgment, physical strength, and power. Hence men have an inherent right to protect and dominate females who are relatively weaker regarding physical and mental strength. According to the theory, since women have weaker traits, they are disqualified from assuming high public offices. The women are only suitable for undertaking domestic duties. The man, being rational and intelligent then is better placed to assume a central stage in the world of politics because the women do not have the required intellectual capabilities to qualify for high profile political positions.[Stockard, Jean. "Gender socialization." In Handbook of the Sociology of Gender, pp. 215-227. Springer, Boston, MA, 2006.]
* Realism
Realist theories indicate that politics should be examined at it exists currently and not necessarily on how an individual wishes the world were. In international relations, realism is mainly on realist ideas regarding how humans behave. Realists hold that individual’s behavior relates to issues to do with ego and individual passions. More clearly, human behavior is related to the concerns about the manifestation of evil in humans. Realists hold that due to the circumstances of the world, human beings would undertake evil actions against each other if they are allowed to do what they want. Due to the evil passions and desires, conflict is inevitable. Hence, it is impossible to imagine a world where individuals do not organize themselves in groups for undertaking conflict. The passions and desires are critical in the area of politics and statesmanship come about to control this aspect of human nature. With the males desiring to control the world, it is challenging for women to rise to the positions of power. The men tend to be egoistic and will undertake anything possible to ensure that women do not ascend to positions of power.
* Feminism
Issues related to gender have remained a major concern in global politics. Feminism in international relations endeavors to control that originates from or even denied on because of gender. Feminists essentially monitor political and social developments that obstruct the success of women. When the prevailing norms indicate that women cannot accomplish certain roles, those norms perpetuate a cycle which denies women the opportunities they require to advance themselves. Feminism in international relations seeks to ensure that there are fair international relations policies — liberal feminism which seeks to explain the oppression that has existed from the old days. The proponents of this preservative refute the division of labor between men and women and how they correspond in both public and private spheres. Liberal feminism indicates that the unequal distribution of rights and duties create barriers which make it challenging for women to participate effectively in the public domain.[Sylvester, Christine. Feminist international relations: an unfinished journey. Vol. 77. Cambridge University Press, 2002.]
Feminist methodologies to international relations have demonstrated that a gender is a critical tool in examining the relations between the states in the global agenda. Feminists see the absence of feminist notions in international politics is because international politics has remained the field of men. Hence, society has viewed women as incapable of dealing with issues involving international politics. In countering the prevailing views regarding international politics, feminists have argued that the ideas behind international relations have been defined regarding males and constructed around male-female dichotomies. Feminist contributions to international relations do not just seek to include more women in international politics. They seek to ensure that the themes of peace, justice, and development prevail. Feminists consider these values to be embedded in most women which creates the need to encourage more women to participate in political issues. Feminists indicate that women are capable of addressing the issues surrounding women and the society at large which is essential for creating better policies for all individuals.[Lascuarín Fernández, Mauricio, and Luis Fernando Villafuerte Valdés. "The International Relations theory under a feminist approach." Revista de Relaciones Internacionales, Estrategia y Seguridad 11, no. 1 (2016): 45-61.]
Developmental theory
Developmental theory is the proposed theory for explaining the reason why women have remained underrepresented in the political arena and positions of power. The theory hypothesizes that traditional societies have sharply differentiated gender roles that make it challenging for the women to work outside the home setting. During the pre-industrial period, women were restricted to working at home. However, the situation did not change much during and after the industrialization. More women continued to stay at home to look after the children while the men participated in other economic activities to provide for the families. Hence, because of engaging in activities around the home, the developmental theory indicates that women have been unable to go out and engage in political issues.[Inglehart, Ronald, and Pippa Norris. "The developmental theory of the gender gap: Women’s and men’s voting behavior in global perspective." International Political Science Review 21, no. 4 (2000): 441-463.]
The need for women political participation
Ensuring that women participate in political affairs is important because it legitimizes the government and practically demonstrates democracy. The females account for slightly over 50% of the world’s population. Despite this, women have remained marginalized and segregated from participating in the democratic processes in the society. Having women in participating in competing for political positions is a huge step towards representing the interests of more than half of the population. Recognizing the need to have more elected females facilitates more changes and creates a way for more women to become leaders. Women are capable of making decisions just like their counterpart males. Having more elected women officials would enhance the utilization of human resources the women have. Women are in a better position to address the issues affecting them. All human beings have the right to take part in decisions that affect their lives in both local and global platforms. Similarly, women, being a part of the society have a right to become political leaders so that they can address the issues that affect them most. Equality in the decision-making process is paramount. It creates an avenue to have equality in the government policy-making process which ensures that the needs of both men and women are addressed. Additionally, the participation of women in political issues ensures the advancement of women. It allows governments to take the interests of the women into account while formulating policies. With more women in elected posts and other positions of power, the decision-making process would incorporate the perspective of women. This would ensure that governments around the world work towards advancing the interests of women.[Haque M (2003). Citizen Participation in Governance through Representation: Issue of Gender in East Asia. International Journal of Public Administration 26: 569-590.]
Factors hindering women in politics
Despite women constituting a bigger portion of the population, getting more women to the positions of power has remained a challenge all over the world. Various strategies to advance the participation of women have been implemented through international agreements and protocols. However, these initiatives are yet to prove effective in attaining gender parity in the positions of power. The issue begs the question why despite the advancements the society has made, there is still a small number of women occupying leadership roles in international politics. While it may appear that women have not actively worked towards political representation, an examination of the issue demonstrates several factors that have prevented women from attaining political power.
* Economic Factors
The free trade seems to affect females disproportionately. The economic indicators like the Gross National Product are male-centered and undervalue the contribution of women to the economy. Women have remained a disadvantaged group where they own only one percent of the property and resources in the world, yet about they undertake 60% of the labor. A majority of the women are poor, illiterate and refugees which denies them equal opportunities with their male counterparts. The capital arrangement is essentially patriarchal because it downgrades the role of women in the economy. A majority of the work undertaken by women is reflected in unpaid unlawful or home settings that economists do not include in economic considerations. Despite the creation of free trade arrangements, state restrictions on labor rights have weakened which has adversely affected a large number of women in the labor force. The gendered division of labor has increased together with an increase in sex trafficking. The women’s domestic role has been considered as work which does not deserve pay. While the men work for pay, the women receive no income at all by undertaking domestic functions. Without income, a majority of women lack the financial stability required to participate in leadership positions. Women continue to depend on their husbands and relatives for financial support.[Boserup, Ester, Su Fei Tan, and Camilla Toulmin. Woman's role in economic development. Routledge, 2013.]
Addressing the problem of income inequalities requires governments to undertake economic reforms meant to include more women in the workplace. Governments should come up with initiatives which encourage women to engage in viable economic activities where they can improve their income. There is a need to create opportunities for entrepreneurship where women can venture into businesses. One of the hindrances for women to start businesses is the lack of capital. Since a majority of them have engaged in household chores where they do not get a substantial income, they lack the required capital to start their businesses. Governments can create funds meant to empower women financially. Through these funds, women can access loans and grants to begin small-scale businesses. In addition to the funds, the initiatives can include training programs to empower women with the skills and knowledge they need to run the businesses. Since a majority of them, especially in the developing countries, lack formal education, the initiatives can invest in educating the women on basic skills about running businesses. The knowledge would assist them to run profitable businesses and continue expanding them. Through entrepreneurship, women can realize the potential they have in generating income not only for themselves but also for their families. Financial empowerment is a huge step in ensuring that women can engage in political issues. Women who are empowered financially can fund their campaigns and run for high profile political offices. Campaigns are usually expensive and require the candidates to have financial backing. Where more women have financial capabilities, they can organize themselves and support women candidates.
* Patriarchal systems
Some feminists contend that there is a significant distinction between male and female policymakers. Women engage more in cooperation and restoration of peace while their male counterparts are more concerned about gaining more power. Surprisingly, once leaders attain the pinnacle of power, their gender becomes insignificant in making policy issues. A majority of the female leaders who manage to attain highest offices of power tend to behave as their male counterparts and become less feminine. In these offices, gender rarely plays a significant role in determining political decisions. However, gender remains an important factor when it comes to male political leaders. In a patriarchal society, it is critical for male leaders to appear ‘manly’ and masculine even if this included making the wrong decisions like initiating devastating wars. Since the women political leaders have to survive in such settings, the society does not expect them to make the policies more women-friendly. Hence, the female political leaders in the highest offices have not achieved much in formulating female-friendly policies to allow more women to participate in politics and other positions of power. The leaders in the formal international institutions have their origin from mainly patriarchal systems; they work hard to maintain women at a disadvantage. The system has restricted women from playing a dominant role in politics and governance. Unless the environment becomes favorable in both the domestic and international settings, fewer women will have opportunities to lead their countries.[Cohn, Carol, and Cynthia Enloe. "A conversation with Cynthia Enloe: Feminists look at masculinity and the men who wage war." Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 28, no. 4 (2003): 1187-1107.]
Patriarchy has manifested itself in several forms. Firstly, it has occurred about paid work where women have been allocated worse jobs compared to their male counterparts despite their qualification. The idea that an individual is a woman creates a ground for denying them the opportunity to work and promotion. In many industries, women continue to earn a fraction of what male workers earn which makes them financially unstable. Secondly, patriarchy occurs in the form of male violence. Gender-based violence is prevalent in marriages where women suffer in the hands of men. To a large extent, society appears to show little concern when women face constant abuse in marriages. Women who are abused in their marriages develop low self-esteem which hinders their participation in politics and other positions of power. Thirdly, patriarchy is demonstrated in sexuality where heterosexuality is termed as the norm. The society looks down upon the single women who make it difficult for them to engage effectively in the political arena. Lastly, patriarchy manifests itself in the family structure where women should remain subjective to the man always. The family socializes girls to remain inferior to the boys. As the girls grow up, they find it difficult to challenge what men say or do. The same happens in the political arena where women encounter resistance when they challenge me...