Racial Dimensions and Education Inequality Social Research Paper

The Connection Between Inequality in Education and Ethnicity in the United States
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The Connection Between Inequality in Education and Ethnicity in the United States
Introduction
Youth are considered the future of any community and society. Through education, youth are endowed with the necessary skills, values, and abilities to contribute to their wellbeing and that society. Education is a life-long process, and it does not end on completion of college or a university accolade. The foundation for this life-long process is laid at a young age in the minds of the youth. However, the American education system continues to marginalize minority groups in American society as a result of racial discrimination. Social inequality in the modern world refers to systemically structured and recurrent patterns of unequal distribution of opportunities, rewards, goods, wealth, and punishment (Crossman, 2020). Racism, for instance, is a form of inequality through which access to the enjoyment of rights and resources is unfairly distributed along racial lines (Hanks, Solomon, & Weller, 2018). The education sector in the United States is among the key sectors through which inequality based on racial lines remains prevalent in modern times. This paper seeks to explore the connection between inequality in the education sector and ethnicity in the United States.
Education in the United States
By far, the United States is among the wealthiest nations on the planet. In 2019, the country had a GDP of $21.44 trillion and, therefore, the biggest economy in the world. Currently, the federal government has allocated 6.2% of the GDP to the education sector. In 2018, the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development published a report indicating that the USA is among the top countries that have invested the most in education. According to the report, the USA spends $12,800 per student on secondary and elementary education, a figure that is 35% more than the average amount ($9,500) for OECD countries. Further, the report indicates that the country spends an estimated $30,000 per student on post-secondary education, 93% more than the average ($16,100) for all OECD countries. Despite these figures, the country ranks below average when ranked against other education systems around the world.
In 2015, rankings compiled by Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) placed America's education system 38th (below average) out of 71 countries in mathematics and 24th in science. Given the size of the American economy and the country's seemingly advanced civilization, expectations are that it should have an inclusive education system that is accessible to all citizens regardless of household income, race, or ethnicity. Scholars have suggested several reasons as to why the American system continues to lag. Nevertheless, funds are not the problem as indicated by the 2017 fiscal year that saw the country provide foreign aid worth $49.87 billion. A significant reason for the problem in the American education system is inequality based on racial and ethnic lines.
Benefits of Education
The benefits of education to both self and society are diverse. In any society, people must be involved in activities such as trade, recreation, and work. People need the know-how of how to navigate daily activities and challenges. Educations also instill self-esteem and confidence in those who pursue it. It, therefore, gives them the power to speak for themselves and others. Education opens the mind of an individual, giving them different perspectives and understanding of the environment and the world. With this, they can make informed decisions towards improving the life of the self and that of the community. Education increases the chances of an individual leading a better life because it provides employment opportunities and spurs creativity, innovation, and self-understanding. Since the 19th century, a person's chances of landing an employment opportunity around the world depend on education. Therefore, lack of education implies high chances of missing out on such opportunities, often leading to a life of abject poverty.
The development of an individual through education leads to the growth and development of societies. A well-educated workforce is a key to the prosperity of the state. A fundamental aspect of education is that it is interconnected with many societal sectors, including food production, economy, health, and environmental sustainability. A link between education and food security has been established in various literary materials. A study by the World Bank revealed that farmers in all countries c increase productivity by an average of 8.7% if armed with a minimum of four years of education. From an economic point of view, education raises the productivity and creativity of people and, therefore, promotes technological advances and entrepreneurship. Thus, education is key to economic development. Scholars have also established a link between education and health. Studies indicate that a well-educated community makes better health-related choices and, therefore, a longer life span. Lastly, the effectiveness and efficiency of environmental sustainability programs depend on education (Brazier, 2014).
Education provides an avenue for the research key is solving societal problems. At the time of writing this paper, countries around the world have enforced curfews and total lock-downs to curb the spread of COVID-19. Such situations provide examples as to why education is vital. Scientists and researchers around the world have been tasked with the responsibility of finding a solution to the pandemic. Without education, this would not have been possible. Developments in all sectors depend on the level of education in a country. Countries with high illiteracy rates tend to be less developed, have high mortality rates, and are ravaged by poverty. Developing nations, compared to developed nations, have high rates of illiteracy, and this contributes to slow development.
The 1984 Declaration of Human Rights recognizes education as a human right. The declaration recognizes that quality education is key to the development of a fully-rounded human being, and in lifting the socially excluded from poverty. Further, the declaration reaffirms that this human right can only be actualized if there is equality of opportunity and universal access through enforceable and monitored quality standards (Simone & Eur, 2011). The American constitution further reaffirms the declaration through the Civil Rights Act of 1964 that criminalized racial discrimination. Given the importance of education to both self and society, it is in the interest of the government that all people within the society should have equal opportunities. The primary role of the federal government in education, therefore, is to protect the rights to education.
Further, the government is responsible for the creation of a learning environment and the provision of the necessary resources. The failure of a section of the community to access education is, therefore, a failure of the federal government. It is in this light that the American government, regardless of the regime, has continued to propagate inequality in educational institutions on an ethnic and racial basis. The inability to end the disparities is enhanced by the inherent systematic discrimination historically cemented in American institutions.
Systemic Discrimination
Systemic discrimination refers to patterns of behavior, practices, and policies within the institutions of a country which perpetuate inequality for racialized groups. In essence, such disparities are propagated because they are embedded in the system. They, therefore, are perceived as reasonable or constitutional. Two-thirds of minority students attend schools that are predominantly minority (Darling-Hammond, 1998). Most of these schools are located in central cities and receive less funding compared to those located in suburban districts. A 1991 report to Congress by William L. Taylor and Dianne Piche revealed that the majority of underfunded schools are concentrated in states in the south where a larger portion of the minority groups reside. These states have insufficient capacities to finance public education.
Intrastate comparisons indicate that states with the widest disparities in expenditures on education are primarily industrial, where disadvantaged minority students reside in property-poor urban districts or rural districts (Darling-Hammond, 1998). Schools with high concentrations of minority and low-income students have fewer instructional resources, have significantly larger class sizes, are more likely to have less qualified and experienced tutors, and experience decreased access to high-quality curriculum. These districts experience a higher rate of poverty that is historically hinged in slavery and racial discrimination, whose consequence is disparities in household income along ethnic lines.
Students in wealthy towns like Darien and Greenwich have easy access to educational resources such as personal computers, updated curriculum material, guidance counselors, and school psychologists (Samuels, 2016). In contrast, towns such as New Britain and Bridgeport do not enjoy such privileges. Such schools tend to have more students who require extra help, yet they rely on dilapidated facilities, lower-paid teachers, and fewer psychologists and guidance counselors. However, schools in states and districts with the highest poverty levels are often the least underfunded. In 2015, Utah spent $6,555 per pupil, while New York spent an estimated $19,818. Jordan (Utah) spends $5,708 per student, while Boston (Massachusetts) spends $20,502. When these figures are compared to the average per-student expenditure for the country (which was $12,605 in 2015-16), significant disparities are realized (Watson, 2016). A valid argument for these disparities is the varying differences in the cost of living among states, districts, and towns. However, what statistics show is that the American education system has school systems that are unequal and separate.
An Overview of Statistics in the Education Sector
Data and statistics paint a clear picture of the levels of inequality in the United States' education sector. This paper will focus on statistics on the rates of admission in public schools, rates of graduation from high school, rates of admission to colleges and universities, and rates of graduation from institutions of higher education. With this data, it is expected that the levels of inequality will be quantified to provide clear indications of the disparities that are often discussed theoretically. The statistics suggest that minority groups, including African-Americans and Latinos, have been marginalized through systemic racial discrimination.
Admission to Public Schools
Between 2000 and 2015, public elementary and secondary school enrollment increased from 47.2 million to 50.4 million (NCES, 2019). In this period, the enrolment of white students decreased from 61% to 49%, while that of African Americans decreased from 17% to 15%. The period saw an increase in the percentage of Hispanic students from 16% to 26%. On the face, these statistics make sense, considering that whites from a majority in the country. However, an in-depth analysis reveals that inequality is a significant reason for fewer admissions by non-white ethnicity groups. Inequality robs low-income and minority groups the right to equal access to resources that enhance education. In essence, more Whites have relatively easier access to admissions in public elementary and secondary schools. As the paper will reveal, minority students face a higher number of challenges and hurdles that affect classroom concentration and performance. They are, therefore, less likely to graduate.
Rates of Graduation from High School
In the United States, a white high school student had an 89% chance of graduating compared to Hispanics at 80% and Blacks at 78% in the school year 2016/2017 (NCES, 2019). As indicated in figure 1, predominantly white states reported higher rates of high school graduation. There are several reasons for the low rates of graduation among low-income and minority students. Researchers have found that white students are more likely to be expelled or suspended compared to white students. They have further argued that Blacks face greater obstacles towards graduation, such as substance abuse, teenage pregnancy, and domestic violence compared to Whites.
As of 2018, Maryland was the wealthiest state in the country, with a median household income of $83,242. Maryland's population consists of 50.2% White Alone, 29.5% African American Alone, and 10.4% Latino residents. With an overall high school graduation rate of 87.9% (in 2018), the graduation rate for white students was 92.66%. In contrast, the graduation rate for Blacks and Hispanics was 85% and 74%, respectively. West Virginia, Arkansas, and Mississippi are ranked among the poorest states. In Mississippi, 59% of the population is Whites, while 38% are Blacks. Here, African American students have a 69% chance of graduating compared to Whites' 82% chance. Therefore, there is a positive correlation between state poverty levels and rates of high school graduation.


Figure  SEQ Figure \* ARABIC 1: 2017 High School Graduation Rate States Ranking, Courtesy of Kerr & Boyington (2019)
Rate of Admission in Higher Education
In 2013, 42% of white students below the age of 24 years compared to a combined total of 34% of Hispanic and Black students enrolled in colleges and universities. In the 468 best-funded and most preferred four-year institutions, the enrolment for Whites was 75%. At the same time, in the lowest funded 3,250 community colleges and universities, the admission for both Blacks and Hispanics was 37% (Carnavale & Strohl, 2013). Statistics further suggest that a substantial portion of non-white students enroll in the least selective colleges and universities that have fewer resources. Interestingly, the enrollment of white students in these institutions increased from 31% to 43% between 1995 and 2009. According to the Georgetown research, close to a third of Black and Hispanic students who attained at least...