United States Preparedness Against Chemical Weapons of Mass Destruction Threats

United States Preparedness against Chemical Weapons of Mass Destruction Threats
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Table of Contents
Abstract 2
Introduction. 3
Purpose Statement 5
Literature Review.. 6
Different Agents Used by Terrorists in Chemical WMD.. 6
Deployment of Chemical WMD by Terrorists. 8
Severity of Chemical Attacks. 9
Response Tactics by Homeland Security. 10
Methodology. 11
Study Design. 11
Data Collection Process: Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria. 13
Ethical Considerations. 15
Result Dissemination and Utilization. 15
Findings and Analysis. 15
Emerging Themes from the Analyzed Data. 15
Surveillance as a Measure of Chemical Attack Preparedness. 17
Training Capacity of Chemical Weapons Attack Responders. 18
Communication Between Stakeholders. 19
Planning for Appropriate Countermeasures. 20
International Law Compliance. 21
Technological Advancements. 22
Limitations. 22
Conclusions and Recommendations. 23
References. 26

United States Preparedness against Chemical Weapons of Mass Destruction Threats
Abstract
Chemical weapons of mass destruction threats in the United States are commonplace. This study aimed to determine the U.S. government’s preparedness level against unforeseen chemical attacks by drawing data from past resources. The researcher employed a secondary qualitative technique (a desk review) targeting different databases) to achieve this objective. A search strategy using keywords and key phrases retrieved numerous sources, which the researcher exposed to an inclusion and exclusion strategy to identify a smaller sample size for use in this study. Results reveal significant advancements in the nation’s surveillance, responders’ training, communication structures, planning, compliance with international laws, and technological advancements. Despite these achievements, the government should institute appropriate measures to strengthen its preparedness against likely chemical attacks.
Introduction
The United States and the rest of the world remain under constant threat of Chemical, Biological, Radiation, and Nuclear (CBRN) use by terrorists as weapons of mass destruction (WMD). Tin et al. (2023) highlight chemical agent attacks as one of the leading issues of concern in the United States because of the ease of acquiring chemicals for formulating and implementing attacks. The author reveals that among the various CBRN weapons, chemicals represent the most used ones, with statistics confirming that they constitute up to 434 of the 565 reported CBRN attacks. Gupta (2020) acknowledges that the threat can arise from state or other non-state actors, making preparedness for such an eventuality fundamental for the U.S. as part of its homeland security. The recognition by international bodies of the adverse consequences of attacks prompted the formulation of legal agreements prohibiting chemical weapons globally. Gupta (2020) underlines the Geneva Protocol of 1925 as one of these documents that seeks to address and deter the use of chemical weapons. Its existence has been a notable deterrent approach that has compelled many nations, including the U.S., to initiate the process of eradicating its stockpiles of such weapons. Despite these efforts, the threat of chemical weapons persists due to the presence of non-state actors globally, requiring adequate WMD planning and preparedness.
The exploitation of chemicals as WMD is an age-old practice. Documentation by diverse studies reveals that this approach dates back to 2000 BCE when the Chinese used toxic smoke to attack their enemies (Gupta, 2020). As a result, the use of poisonous chemicals has existed since the rise of warfare between warring parties. DeLuca et al. (2020) agree that attackers prefer this approach because of its invasive aspect with far-reaching and instant consequences. The continued use of chemicals reveals that as civilizations continued to benefit from chemistry and science advancements, warring parties also found a way to win their battles easily. For instance, early incidences marked the use of sulfur-containing smoke by Sparta and Athens in the 4th Century, while Romans employed toxic smoke in Spain. However, state actors questioned the ethical basis for such methods, leading to their minimal use in the following centuries. For instance, the British refrained from using cyanide-based shells to quash Russians in the Crimean War. The southern and northern fronts in the United States also opposed such means against their enemies despite chemical artilleries (Gupta, 2020). Despite the cautionary measures, chemical weapons regained popularity during World War I and II, leaving far-reaching ramifications on affected populations. Ciottone (2018) indicates that attacks have remained isolated but persistent since then, with non-state actors being the primary perpetrators. The most recent cases include the Syria attacks using sarin and the assassinations of individuals such as Sergei Skripal and Kim Jong-Nam in the UK and Malaysia, respectively. These incidents confirm that chemical weapon threats remain a significant issue for Homeland Security to consider.
The lingering threat of chemical weapons and the likelihood of their use by terrorists as a WMD in the U.S. confirms the need for security agencies to plan effectively in combatting this menace. Exploring this topic is fundamental because it advances the course’s focus since it considers CBRN a unique homeland security phenomenon. As a result, creating a comprehensive understanding of the nature, severity, and extent of the problem is fundamental in informing planning and decision-making by respective agencies in deterring chemical attacks from international or domestic agents. Thus, it leads to the research question: is the United States adequately prepared against unforeseen chemical attacks?
Purpose Statement
Chemical weapons are an increasing threat to national security due to the ease of access to chemicals by terrorists. Tin et al. (2023) warn that they are the most probable approach non-state actors can use as a WMD because deadly chemicals remain readily available globally. For instance, the authors indicate that many industries have minimal restrictions for fatal chemicals, including remifentanil, fentanyl, and halothane, making it easy for ill-minded individuals to stock such materials. Besides the access, the authors confirm that the educational and expertise threshold for formulating less complex chemical weapons is relatively low compared to other CBRN attacks (Tin et al., 2023). Such an aspect underlines why they have remained the most prevalent forms of attack. Even Gupta (2020) notes that their wide application during and after the world wars emerged from the minimal need for complex technology and advanced education. As a result, chemical weapons’ ease of use remains a looming threat to homeland security, requiring comprehensive awareness of the nature of the chemical attacks and many other associated dynamics.
Investigating chemical WMD threats is fundamental for improving homeland security’s preparedness through appropriate planning. Ciottone (2018) reveals that security agencies need to understand the specific agents of concern to devise the proper mechanism for counteracting them in the event of an attack. This research will investigate the chemical agents that threaten homeland security. It will also explore the unique deployment systems in contemporary times that security agencies must remain alert about, the severity and nature of the chemical weapons in populations, including recent incidences, and different response tactics that Homeland Security can employ to counteract such attacks. Investigating these aspects of chemicals as WMD will be critical in improving the awareness of the threat and initiating comprehensive planning against such attacks in the nation.
Literature Review
Different Agents Used by Terrorists in Chemical WMD
Terrorists have broad exposure to readily available chemical weapons that vary in symptomatology, mechanism of action, and toxicity. Aroniadou-Anderjaska et al. (2020) confirm that this aspect makes it challenging for Homeland Security to plan and prepare against such agents. Despite the agreements such as the Geneva Protocol highlighted by Gupta (2020) and the Chemical Weapons Convention discussed by Kloske and Witkiewicz (2019) enforcing regulations for preventing chemical-related attacks, the accessibility of dangerous industrial chemicals sustains such risks. For instance, Ciottone (2018) reveals that terrorists seek chemicals that can act fast, demonstrate high volatility, and trigger lethal consequences. The concern is that the current market has a constant supply of chemicals that individuals with minimal education in chemistry can easily combine to achieve such results. As a result, they can leverage many products and execute chemical attacks with far-reaching consequences on populations.
The most commonly used lethal chemical agents in WMD comprise nerve agents. Kloske and Witkiewicz (2019) indicate that their preference arises from the fact that they can penetrate diverse surfaces, including the gastrointestinal tract, the respiratory areas, and the skin. Another unique aspect is that they are odorless, making them challenging to detect through routine processes. Aroniadou-Anderjaska et al. (2020) indicate that these properties facilitated nerve agents such as sarin, tabun, and cyclosarin in diverse instances during the Second World War. Since then, many other similar agents have emerged, including novichok, formulated by the Soviet Union. Although the current Russian government has continued to deny the existence of such chemicals with instant lethal consequences, leaked information by spies reveals that it exists. Aroniadou-Anderjaska et al. (2020) report that they are cholinesterase inhibitors with significantly higher toxicity than other chemicals such as soman and VX. Records of their use include the killing of Sergei Skripal in the UK in 2018. Such chemical incidents illustrate the varieties in existence.
State and non-state actors have used other less lethal chemical agents for decades. For instance, Gupta (2020) highlights using vesicants and other agents in world wars. The author outlines attacks that relied on phosgene and chlorine to damage the lungs of opponents. Cyanide use during that time remained extensive, too, because of its effectiveness. As a result, many agents, such as carfentanil and fentanyl, rose from the initiated research (Ciottone, 2018). Gupta (2020) notes numerous chemicals, including sulfur mustard, vesicants, phosgene, carbon monoxide, superwarfarins, and incapacitating agents, have emerged over the years. Balachandar (2021) classifies the chemicals as blistering, nerve, psychomimetic, choking, toxins, and blood agents. Figure 1 also illustrates DeLuca et al.’s (2020) illustration of the different chemical uses over the years. These agents increased the risk for chemical-related state terrorism due to their availability drastically. The increasing concern emerges from exploiting “AI generative technology,” which experts consider significantly more lethal than existing chemicals (Tin et al., 2023, p. 398). This aspect presents a more complex phenomenon availing dangerous chemicals that individuals can use as WMD.


Figure 1: Chemical agents’ classification (DeLuca et al., 2020)
Deployment of Chemical WMD by Terrorists
Mechanisms of deploying chemical weapons have remained diverse and sophisticated. Trends indicate that perpetrators exploit different tactics, including sabotage in industries, rudimentary poisoning of foods, and other traditional techniques of setting a trap for enemies. Gupta (2020) indicates that countries such as Germany, Britain, and the U.S. employed these tactics during the world wars to gain an advantage over others. After banning chemical use in battles, terrorists have continued to target individuals through concealed tactics. For instance, Aroniadou-Anderjaska et al. (2020) report that a container potentially laced with novichok led to the assassination of a British spy and his daughter. Ciottone (2018) also discloses the Syria attacks using sarin and the death of Kim Jong-Nam using VX deployed physically by a woman in Malaysia. These events demonstrate that threats of chemical WMD are complex because of the diverse ways terrorists can exploit to achieve their goals. Understanding these aspects is fundamental for Homeland Security to determine appropriate countermeasures within the United State’s territory.
Continued technological advancements are presenting far more concerning deployment tactics for these chemicals. For instance, Tin et al. (2023) flag the increasing drone use by actors in executing chemical attacks. According to Ilijevski et al. (2021), unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) present a complex threat to homeland security. These tools’ capacity to provide users with an aerial view of a specific area has led to their misuse by criminal outfits for collecting intelligence and planning attacks. Another aspect is that individuals require minimal skills to operate a drone, akin to playing a video game. Other UAVs are so advanced that they can remain inconspicuous because of their silent modes and camouflaging colors, providing the terrorists with an ideal vehicle for deploying chemical bombs. In places such as Nigeria, Boko Haram is already using drones to advance their military base attacks, with the recent recorded instances occurring in 2018. Similar cases have occurred in Syria perpetrated by the Islamic State. Tin et al. (2023) recognize that the modification of UAVs by the Islamic State for carrying chemical payloads highlights the need for security agencies to remain vigilant of such attacks. Such aspects confirm that there is a possibility that enemies could exploit this tactic to coordinate chemical attacks.
Severity of Chemical Attacks
Attacks by chemical weapons perpetrated by state and non-state players are devastating. Gupta (2020) provides examples of terrorist attacks in different regions and their consequences. For instance, the Matsumoto attack in 1994 and the 1995 Tokyo subway incident left thousands of individuals with life-long effects and numerous deaths. In 2002, Chechen militants used chemicals to capture hostages in a Moscow-based theatre. Many other events have occurred globally, demonstrating the frequency of chemical-related attacks and their associated ramifications. Reports by Tim et al. (2023) indicate that such non-state-instigated events are approximately 565 globally occurring between 1990 and 2020. These events have contributed to over 980 civilian victims’ mortality cases and many injuries. Such outcomes agree with Balachandar’s (2021) claim that chemical weapons have far-reaching and sometimes concealed consequences. Since the attacks ensue in chaotic and hidden ways, security agencies need to recognize the toxidromes of every chemical attack to inform their response or preventative strategies.
Response Tactics by Homeland Security
The leading approach for combatting the threat of chemical weapons is for the government and Homeland Security Department to continue honoring the international agreement for eradicating chemical warfare stockpiles within its territory. In this context, the government has been employing different tactics, including combustion, pyrolysis, thermocatalysis, photocatalysis, and enzyme-based methods for neutralizing diverse chemical agents of concern (NawaЕ‚a et al., 2019). Balachandar (2021) acknowledges that since 100% prevention is impractical, persistent inspection and monitoring of dangerous chemicals can deter their use for nefarious purposes. Moreover, security bodies should remain adequately prepared with appropriate tools and infrastructure to respond effectively whenever chemical attack-related emergencies arise. Such a scenario would keep the U.S. protected from explored incidents.
If an attack occurs, the awareness of toxidromes coupled with a well-capacity-built response team will identify response strategies for combatting the problem. Ciottone (2018) indicates that this aspect guides the processes experts would employ to assess the attack and determine the urgency and safety needs. The complex awareness of the clinical presentations of a chemical agent is fundamental in minimizing primary and secondary infections and tempering the severity of an attack. Jett and Spriggs (2020) note that this understanding would also inform the appropriate application of countermeasures based on agent type and other programs for addressing long-term effects. Thus, comprehensive preparedness, capacity-building, and appropriate structures are critical for responding to chemical attacks.
This literature review confirms that Homeland Security faces numerous chemical-related related threats. Different studies reveal that non-state actors can easily access deadly chemicals in local markets and require minimal knowledge to design simple bombs for attacks. Diverse incidents demonstrate the use of cyanide, VX, and Novickoks in developed and developing nations by terrorist groups. Trends indicate that deployment methods range from rudimentary ones to complex ones through the use of drones. Homeland security should remain alert to these aspects because attacks have adverse immediate and long-term effects on the victims and affected populations. Thus, employing appropriate response strategies and constantly updating them to deter chemical-based attacks is fundamental for the nation’s safety.
Methodology
Study Design 
Researchers employ diverse research approaches for collecting data and answering their research questions. Thus, the study seeks to determine the United States’ preparedness level against likely chemical attacks. Since the literature review demonstrates that vast studies have explored the preparedness strategies implemented by the state and federal governments over the years, using secondary research can uncover sought-after results. As a result, this research will use a secondary qualitative technique in the form of a desk review. Abu-Taieh et al. (2019) underline desk review as a reliable research approach that professionals exploit to analyze existing data. The researchers categorize the method under the secondary data collection tactics because it relies on existing databases or past published materials meeting a specific criterion.
The choice of desk review approach led to extensive research for published resources, including government documents, journal articles, and other institutional works as sources of information and data for analysis in this study. The tile and the research question formed the primary basis for selecting diverse materials. Due to the nature of this search criteria, the researcher decided to limit the used materials to those accessible in online databases. Such an aspect is consistent with Abu-Taieh et al.’s (2019) claims about the scope of desk reviews and their strengths and weaknesses. Thus, this approach assisted in devising a comprehensive search strategy for resources used in the analysis section of this research.
The researcher embarked on a targeted systematic literature search. This method included diverse databases to ensure the variety and diversity of relevant journal articles, government publications, and institutional-based documents. For instance, some leading databases explored included ProQuest, EBSCOhost, Defense Technical Information Center, and Military Periscope. The researcher coined diverse search phrases and keywords related to the targeted CBRN to retrieve relevant publications easily. They comprised “chemical weapons of mass destruction threats in the U.S.,” “U.S. preparedness against chemical weapon attacks,” “chemical weapon attack countermeasures in the U.S.,” and “protective strategies against unforeseen chemical attacks in the United States.” The researcher scanned the abstract to determine the relevance of different results and selected appropriate ones for data collection and analysis. A similar technique occurred during the search through Google and Google Scholar because they provided an ideal open database for retrieving fundamental resources.
KeywordsSearch Phrases“Chemical weapons” “U.S. Threats”chemical weapons of mass destruction threats in the U.S.“U.S. Preparedness” “Chemical Weapons”U.S. preparedness against chemical weapon attacks“Countermeasures”chemical weapon attack countermeasures in the U.S.“Protective Strategies”protective strategies against unforeseen chemical attacks in the United States.Table 1: Keywords and key phrases used for the search strategy.
Data Collection Process: Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria
The search through the d...