Theoretical Applications II

Psychology
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Self-Concept and Cross-Cultural Differences
The self-concept is the individual perception of a person’s behavior and other unique characteristics. The specific individual develops a mental picture of the self. There is the possibility of having a self-concept that is fused with the representations of others. The definition of this type of self-concept is that an individual tends to view the self according to others' opinions (Zhu et al., 2017). For instance, other people may view one as ugly. This opinion then becomes the perception of the affected individual, who views the self as ugly. The concept is most common amongst children experiencing bullying in schools. In most cases, people who depend on other people's opinions to develop their self-concepts usually associate with lots of negativity. However, it is also clear that there are cases when they may experience positivity, particularly when other people believe in their capabilities.
In the same way, there is the self-concept that is not fused with the representations of others. It implies that the individual’s perception of the self is specific to personal opinions and not influenced by other individuals' external thoughts. People with this type of self-concept usually depend on their personal opinions to conclude who they think they are or even how they look. People who tend not to rely on others’ opinions for their self-concept perceptions tend to associate with a lot of positivity (Zhu et al., 2017). Such people may also form negative thoughts about themselves, which may negatively impact their self-perceptions. This kind of perception is usually rooted in the individual and may not be easily influenced to change as the person does not rely on others' perceptions.
Trait Constructs
The layperson may find the concept of traits as a useful construct in describing the patterns of behavior. These descriptions usually depend on the persistence of such behaviors for long periods. The patterns are typically stable and are likely to have a wide range of consequences on individuals' behaviors. The Acceptance of the layperson’s use of this construct to establish scientific theories amounts to accepting the categorizations they commonly use, such as arrogant or welcoming (Cervone & Pervin, 2018). Traits are essential in the process of identification of individualistic behaviors and may help in differentiating the personalities of different individuals. It is also clear that laypersons' traits in defining character reflect the cognitive functioning of the individuals. This means that they can study their colleagues' characters and develop conclusions on the specific character traits.
The layperson helps to define character from a non-scientific approach. This angle is essential in building the most basic constructs of traits. Scientific research on traits first depends on theoretical definitions that may also include the laypersons’ approaches to defining character based on traits. Traits do not provide the best tools for scientific analysis, but they still play a role in the analysis. Scientific analysis often seeks to explain certain behavioral traits that are categorized as aggressive, timid, and accommodative, among others. The categorizations rely on the laypersons’ approach of relying on prolonged characteristic traits to define individuals' various characters. Scientific research recognizes the presence of character traits (Cervone & Pervin, 2018). However, it uses scientific approaches in its attempts to explain the traits. It also applies the same scientific research to try to predict behavior and characteristic traits.
The Five-Factor Model
The five-factor personality traits model organizes personality traits in a hierarchical order of five main dimensions: extraversion/introversion, agreeableness, neuroticism, conscientiousness, and openness to experiences (Wiggins, 1996). These five basic terms are essential in the psychological description and explanation of individuals’ behaviors. However, there are cases whereby the broad terms may not give accurate descriptions of individuals' characteristics. For instance, it may be wrong to say a statement such as: “Liz smiled and greeted people happily because she is an extravert.” This statement is far too general and does not have enough proof of the stated opinion. Liz may have a smile when greeting people, not because she is an extrovert, but may be hiding her inner character. She may force a smile and feign happiness to create an impression that she is an extrovert, whereas she is an introvert. The statement is precisely similar to saying: “It is warm and sunny in San Diego this week because San Diego has nice weather.” The prevailing weather condition in San Diego is only for the moment and not reflective of the weather all around the year. The statement is quite conclusive and does not represent the city's weather throughout the year as it usually changes. The state of being an introvert or extrovert is not as easy to define as in the case of the above statement, given its generalized approach. To conclude that an individual possesses a specific character trait based on the observation of a single event may not be accurate in defining that individual's character. There is the need to observe the subject for a specified period and establish a behavioral pattern before concluding that one falls in a specific category.
The Brain and Psychological Functions
The brain influences individuals’ behaviors and their mental states. This concept makes studying the brain an essential aspect in psychological studies. Currently, there are technologies such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) that may help researchers to see the pictorial representations of the brain while it is in action. This is essential in understanding the specific reactions of the brain to different stimuli (DeYoung, 2010). The reactions are also essential in understanding the effects of the brains structure on individuals’ personalities and cognitive functions. Different stimuli influence different reactions in the brain, and the reactions influence personality. For instance, exposing individuals to certain conditions that are likely to influence their emotions will elicit different reactions to occur in the brain, depending on the conditions (Stuss, 1992). Emotional reactions determine personality, and different brain structures characterize them. Studying the brain and the other parts of the nervous system allows psychologists to better understand the sensory-related experiences, the emotional motivators, and the state of consciousness in individuals (DeYoung, 2010). Psychologists attempt to explore the possibilities of the neuroscience of personality. According to the most recent research studies, there is the possibility of a breakthrough as the present evidence continues to connect brain reactions to the psychological influences on personality. The implication is that there is a possibility of the neuroscience of personality (DeYoung, 2010). The brain influences every individual's reactions. These reactions range from emotions to the actions taken after different forms of stimulation. Emotional motivators appear to be the best explanation for the connection between brain activity and psychological development.
Skinner and Environmental Influences
B. F. Skin...