Pandemics: lessons from the past, applications for the future.

Pandemics: Lessons from the Past
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The Nature of Pandemics
Pandemics are characterized as epidemics that rapidly spread to countries worldwide or to specific regions of the world (i.e., Asia, Africa). Most people do not have immunity against the microorganisms that have caused epidemics. Thus, perpetuating their spread until other regions are infected (Jamison, Gelband, Horton, et al., 2017).
There is written evidence of a history of pandemics from the prehistoric times up to the present. Some of the well-known pandemics through history are the Bubonic Plague, also known as the Black Death, the 1918 Spanish Influenza, Poliomyelitis (from 1400 BCE, as evidenced by hieroglyphics in the caves of Egypt), and the SARS outbreak of 2003 (Jamison, Gelband, Horton, et al., 2017).
Studies suggest that there is an increased likelihood of recurring pandemics for the last century secondary to globalization, increased travels, urbanization, and significant abuse of the natural environment (Jamison, Gelband, Horton, et al., 2017).
Origin of Pandemics
Zoonotic transmission is frequently the culprit for the emergence of pandemics. Zoonosis refers to the mutation or the process by which animal pathogens, the majority of which are from domesticated animals and the wildlife, are transferred to the human body, thereby causing the disease. Transmission increases directly with human-to-animal interaction through the farming of livestock, creating reservoirs wild animals captured through hunting, and the consumption and trading of wild animals (Jamison, Gelband, Horton, et al., 2017).
Risk Factors
Spark Risk
A zoonotic spark is secondary to the exploitation of domesticated animals. These instances are prevalent in areas with high livestock production systems, such as India, Japan, and Western Europe (Jamison, Gelband, Horton, et al., 2017).
Transmission Risk
The risk for transmission is directly proportional to the genetic adaptation of the pathogen, population density, susceptibility to infection, and the effectiveness of public health prevention measures (Jamison, Gelband, Horton, et al., 2017).
Population density plays a major role in the rate of infection, especially in urban areas and the center of globalization. Furthermore, social injustice and discrimination, poverty, and environmental effects increase a person’s susceptibility to incurring the pathogen. The presence of comorbidities such as diabetes mellitus, hypertension, and respiratory diseases, as well as negative factors such as malnutrition, caloric deficits and surplus, the individual’s immune system, the scarcity of clean water, and the adequacy of sanitation, accelerate the transmission rates. Together, these factors identify the marginalized population as the most susceptible groups in a pandemic (Jamison, Gelband, Horton, et al., 2017).
Preventive Measures
The success of containing a pandemic mainly depends on the preparedness of the country. The following are the effective preventive measures:
* Proper identification, contact tracing, management, and treatment of the cases based on the guidelines of the public health institutions and the World Health Organization.
* Satisfactory physical and communications arrangements to accurately send and receive the information and health resources
* And, sufficient financial budget from the government to formulate an adequate response and to shoulder the economic crises secondary to the negative effects of a pandemic (Jamison, Gelband, Horton, et al., 2017).
Some countries have a means of perpetrating an epidemic, especially the countries of power and those that have an excellent economy. A competent economy is critical in financing the detection and management of diseases. On the contrary, countries with less environmental and financial resources tend to become inadequate in fulfilling the gaps for determining and treating a disease. These countries usually succumb to extended community quarantines without mass testing. Thus, increasing the risk of the recurrence of a pandemic (Jamison, Gelband, Horton, et al., 2017).
Studies have shown that countries with high spark risk are also the least prepared. Countries with a high wildlife index are the most prone areas for pandemics such as China, North America, and Western Europe. Other areas are geographically related such as Central and West Africa (Jamison, Gelband, Horton, et al., 2017).
Black Death
One of the most devastating pandemics that have destroyed the lives of many people was the Black Plague. It alarmed Europe from 1347-1352 CE and killed approximately twenty-five to thirty million people. Bacillus bacteria are responsible for the disease with a mode of transmission from fleas to rodents (Horrox, 2013).
Mode of Transmission
Originally, the disease is evident in Central Asia and it has been carried from there to Crimea by the Mongol soldiers and dealers. Sicily, Italy is probably the first area to experience the plague secondary to the rats found on Genoese trading ships that have sailed across the Black Sea (Horrox, 2013).
Some of the factors that caused its spread include the following: 1) Tartar-Mongols sieged the port city and delivered the infected corpses in Italy.; 2) In 2011, scientists discovered that the disease came from China and traversed the land through the Mongol traders who traveled across the Silk Road.; 3) Short distance from Sicily to mainland Italy.; 4) Trading routes include several countries such as France, Spain, Great Britain, Ireland, Germany, Russia, the Scandinavian countries, and the Baltic States (Horrox, 2013).
Types of Black Plague and Its Signs and Symptoms
All of the three types of the plague all present with severe edema in the perineal and underarm areas secondary to the affectation of the large groups of lymph nodes. Bubonic plague, the most prevalent of the three types in the fourteenth century, is characterized by blackening of the lymph nodes (hence, black death) and a widespread hemorrhage throughout the body called buboes. These are often accompanied by other fatal symptoms such as septic shock (typically, within seventy-two hours). The pneumonic or pulmonary and septicemic types are often fatal in almost 100% of the cases. The disease is extremely devastating that a writer wrote:
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Because of the lack of knowledge, technology, and information of the medieval doctors, they were helpless for around two hundred years since there are no treatment regimens available and the preventive measures are not accurate. Moreover, the level of sanitation during these times was at a minimum as compared to modern standards. Furthermore, the lack of quarantine methods, together with the transmission by the rodents, contributed to the spread of the disease (Horrox, 2013).
Mortality and Morbidity
The death toll in Florence was approximately 50, 000-80, 000 people, while in Paris, there are 800 deaths per day. Around 30-50% died in Europe and totaled twenty-five to thirty million between 1347-1352 CE (Horrox, 2013).
Significance of Pandemic Through History
Great consequences came during the pandemic secondary to the division of the societal systems. It significantly affected the government and the church for not being able to control the pandemic through policies and the help of the Lord. Moreover, this pandemic led to significant changes in the social, political, and religious standings (Horrox, 2013).
Crises were widespread across Europe since the supplies do not meet the demands secondary to the lack of workers due to the high mortality rates. The salaries of the workers were decreased and delayed while the price of the goods soared. There was a huge fall in the manufactured goods leading to the challenges faced by the farming industry (Horrox, 2013).
Contrary to the low wages received by other workers in most industries, the laborers in the agriculture industry demanded a raise. Thus, drastically decreasing the profit of the landowners especially the institutions where the laborers reside. The inability of the landlords to offer a greater salary and a better homage to these peasants led to social unrest and outright rebellions. Some of the renowned uprisings are those in Paris (1358 CE), Florence (1378 CE0, and London (1381 CE). Despite these movements, the demands of the laborers remained unheard. Thus, changing their demands to lower taxes. Because the corrupt government and the landlords failed to grant the demands of the peasants, significant famines began from 1358-1390s CE (Horrox, 2013).
The field of peasantry prospered due to the continuous high demands because of the significant reduction in the population that omitted the competition for land and resources. The aristocrats who are landowners failed to reclaim unclaimed lands, making the peasants claim lands abruptly. Thus, gaining more profits than the landowners in the long run (Horrox, 2013).
Women also began obtaining rights over property ownership in most parts of Europe. However, the regulations differ in each country. The widows of England were authorized to keep the land left by their husbands for a particular time until they find another husband again. In other areas, where governments have better policies, widows are authorized to keep their land even after remarriage (Horrox, 2013).
However, this pandemic also ensued some advantages such as the introduction to good preventive measures, the creation of institutions and organizations solely responsible for the spread of infectious diseases such as the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Furthermore, governments also started allotting budget for the health sector and formulated a defense, prevention, and treatment strategies in case a plague destructs the countries again (Horrox, 2013).
The Role of Climate in the Transmission Rates and Virulence Factors
Studies have shown that the variations in climate affect the pathogens depending on the hosts that can transmit the disease. Some diseases are carried by vectors such as mosquitoes, ticks, sandflies, and others that depend...