Patriarchy and the Practice of Female Genital Mutilation

Motivational Factors to Female Genital Mutilation Practice (FGM)
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Table of Contents
Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………….3
Introduction………………………………………………………………………………. 4
Critical Analysis Of Prior Research………………………………………………………..6
Conceptual framework...........................................................................................................7
Literature Review ...................................................................................................................9
Purpose ...................................................................................................................................4
Summary of Findings ............................................................................................................10
Recommendation ……………………………………………………………………………11
Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………….. ...12
References ..............................................................................................................................14
Abstract
Violence against women remains a significant problem in the world, female genital mutilation (FGM ) is one of the recurrent problems that negatively impact on women. FGM is a harmful traditional practice that violates women's rights. Female genital mutilation has been the center of several debates (Abusharaf, 2013). According to the World Health Organization report, approximately 135 million women and children have undergone FGM. Young girls are the ones who are affected because they are at risk of dying later due to complication related to FGM during childbirth(Abusharaf, 2013).
FGM is known to be practiced in more than 28 countries in Africa and other places in the Middle East, including some parts of Asian countries. Most efforts toward ending FGM focus on addressing women's perceptions, leaving out the key people who force women to engage in such practices (UNFPA, 2011). Men play an important role in influencing this practice. The purpose of this review is to evaluate the role of culture as a motivational factor to female genital mutilation practice. The literature research will address the gaps by exploring societal knowledge and attitude toward FGM practices and cultural norms of communities in ending FGM.
Introduction
Female genital mutilation is defined as a process involving partial removal of the female genitalia for non-medical purposes. FGM programs have done little to end the practice, because most efforts toward ending FGM focus on addressing women's perceptions, leaving out the key people who force women to engage in such practices (Ghanim, 2015). Various arguments have emerged on the role of men in facilitating FGM. Apart from pain and trauma, FGM procedures can result in death from severe bleeding. Some of the long-term health problems include recurrent infections, increased risk of childbirth complication, decreased sexual enjoyment and psychological problems (Kaplan et al., 2013). Owing to the negative consequences faced by women, interest groups have reviewed the best practices to end FGM (Kaplan et al., 2013).
In a joint statement by the WHO, UNICEF, and UNFPA, FGM practices are classified into four categories to show the different procedures. The first procedure is known as the clitoridectomy, second is excision, the third is infulation and the fourth being other harmful procedures perform on the genital for no medical reasons (UNFPA-UNICEF, 2012). For this review, we will refer to all the four types. The practice of FGM is culturally motivated; FGM is motivated by several factors. Countries where the practice is prevalent, FGM practice is linked to cultural issues revolving around marriage, chastity, preservation of virginity and social acceptance by the society (Gayle & Rymer, 2016).
Even though the FGM practice does not intend to cause harm to women, the practice is more of a self-enforced process. Families and individuals are compelled to practice FGM to maintain their cultural tradition, but not for any health-related outcomes. Previous research studies reveal several reasons why FGM is practiced. These reasons vary from one region to another. The motivational factors behind the practice of FGM comprise a mix of socio-cultural factors (Reig et al., 2014). Several kinds of literature present the role of men as fathers, husbands, and religious leaders as facilitators of continuation of female genital mutilation.
The review, therefore, intends to evaluate the role of men in influencing FGM. The research question is: "how Patriarchal society perpetuates the practice of female genital mutilation. The purpose of the literature review is to conduct a systemic review of publications that explore towards FGM. The review will focus on the role of men, their attitude, beliefs and how these acts as motivational factors regarding FGM and their ideas about FGM prevention and abandonment.
Critical Analysis of Prior Research
Men play an influential role as community leaders, husbands and religious leaders and are in charge most community institutions. The continuation of FGM has been presented from various perspectives. It is important to review some of the perspective literature to understand the role men in facilitating or reducing of FGM. Several pieces of literature argue that FGM is still persistent because of the lack proper communication between men and women due to cultural restrictions (Reig et al, 2014).
Men are reluctant to discuss sensitive issues, including FGM in the public sphere. Although women are at the forefront of condemning FGM, research studies prove that men play a more significant role in decision-making processes when it comes to sexual issues (Johansen et al., 2013). Research studies involving men and their influential role in the decision-making process to end FGM are not well documented. There are limited data on the involvement of men in the community to discourage the practice (Johansen et al., 2013).
Methodology
Guided by the research question, the review involved a literature search using online databases These included, PsycINFO, MEDLINE, the Cochrane library British index and archives the research included the database of international organizations like WHO, UNICEF and UNFPA regarding their findings on FGM. The review includes qualitative, quantitative and cross-sectional studies and views of experts involved in FGM relate projects. The systematic review examined perceptions and attitudes of men and their role as community leaders as one of the motivating factors to FGM practice. The research results aim at analyzing key factors that hinder effective implementation of programs aimed at eliminating FGM.
Patriarchy and the Practice of Female Genital Mutilation
FGM still is considered as a female issue; women are considered the main excisor and the perpetrators of their rights (Muteshi, Miller & Belizán, 2016). The underlying roles of men have not been emphasized despite the fact that men are the final decision makers in the society. FGM is commonly perceived as a practice prevalent in patriarchal societies affecting women who are powerless. The practice is deeply rooted because the society is male-dominated (Muteshi, Miller & Belizán, 2016).
In most parts of Africa, FGM plays a significant role in men sexuality; men believe that penetrating a narrow vaginal opening is perceived to improve a man's sexual pleasure (Varol et al., 2014).The ability to penetrate a tight opening of a woman’s vagina is related to strength, energy, and a strong sex drive, that is being a real man. It is not surprising that most African men refuse to marry uncircumcised women (Varol et al., 2014). In some culture, some women request for infibulate after childbirth for fear that she would be abandoned by the husband. In much African society polygamous justify FGM and as a strategy to satisfy all the women, they believe that FGM makes their wives sexually inactive (Varol et al., 2014).
Women living a patriarchal society with limited access to resources depend mostly on men; through marriage, they can access these resources. Society makes FGM a pre-requisite of marriage (Kululanga et al., 2012). The fact that FGM is a common practice acceptable in the society, women face sanctions if they do not undergo FGM. The benefits of FGM in many societies outweigh the long-term consequences (Mukherjee, 2014). In many societies, FGM is practiced because women still cling to the old traditions. Hence, they collude with their daughter to undertake FGM (European Institute for Gender Equality, 2013).
According to European Institute for Gender Equality (2013), a patriarchal system as a system whereby women are under-represented in several areas including, legislative, educational, criminal justice and economic areas of the society. In a patriarchal society, men are at the highest levels of all areas (Foundation for Women's Health Research and Development, 2010). This concept is important when analyzing women’s rights. In most cases, men make final decisions. In traditional patriarchal societies, men primarily provide financial support; they have the responsibility to protect women and children (Foundation for Women's Health Research and Development, 2010).
Men have the right to participate and make decisions in the public realm while women are confined to specific roles of childbearing and sex. In most African societies, patriarchy is a common phenomenon (Coyne & Coyne, 2014). Religion also affects how society views both men and women based on different roles; religious teachings emphasize the need for women to stay righteous and honorable. Men are expected to uphold his status in the community. Societies that are inclined towards patriarchy do not uphold women's rights (Coyne & Coyne, 2014).
In Africa, Asia and Middle East have higher incidences of FGM. Countries like Egypt, Guinea, and Yemen have over 90 percent FGM rates (UNFPA-UNICEF, 2012). FGM is a common practice in these societies; the exercise is conducted by traditional female midwives because it is their role. In most of these societies, men dictate almost all the activities that seem to be acceptable. (UNFPA-UNICEF, 2012). Men control over every aspect of women’s lives as women gladly accepts. Women still depend on their husbands, for protection and economic support. Therefore, women need to comply with rites of passage like FGM (UNFPA-UNICEF, 2012).
Literature review
In relation to men's beliefs and attitudes and the patriarchal nature of the society, the literature review analyzed how men's behaviors support the continuation or abandonment of FGM. A research study was reviewed. A cross sectional study by Johnson-Agbakwu et al., ...