Cell Behaviors (Biological & Biomedical Sciences Research Paper)

Cell Behaviors
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Introduction
Cells are the basis of life since they contain the fundamental molecules working together based on a specific function. However, different factors dictate the adaptation and normal functioning of the cell. The advancing technology has made possible for Nanotechnology, which mainly deals with the dimension and tolerances less than 100 nanometers in the manipulation of molecules and atoms. As a result of nanotechnology, nanoscale fabrication has evolved in manufacturing nanostructures that involve none, one, or two dimensions under the nanometer range. In general terms, nanofabrication involves the designing process of the nanomaterials with the devices measured in nanometers, thus helping in the parallel processing of the materials over a large scale. The nanofabrication uses a state-of-the-art technology that is mostly applied in designing microcontrollers, microchips, and other silicon chips since it investigates its properties of the atoms. This range is used as the basic unit in the production of microelectronics, semiconductors, and optics, just to mention a few. Changes in the environment both internally and externally have a massive effect on the function of the cell. These changes always have an impact on the structure of the cell. Therefore, for the cell to perform its primary function, it has to change its adaptation to the changes in the environment, thus fitting it within its initial functioning. The changes in the cell structure and behavior always lead to the emergence of other functions, thus enhancing its usability. At the same time, some of the functions are impaired as a result of these changes, which makes it somehow ineffective. Therefore, this paper will explore three articles, namely; Modulation of macrophage phenotype by cell shape by McWhorter et al. (2013); Early TCR signaling induces rapid aerobic glycolysis enabling distinct acute T cell effector functions by Menk et al. (2018); Phosphoenolpyruvate is a metabolic checkpoint of anti-tumor T cell responses by Ho et al. (2015). These will be on the basis of exploring the behaviors of the cell under different conditional factors.
Articles Reviews
McWhorter, F. Y., Wang, T., Nguyen, P., Chung, T., & Liu, W. F. (2013). Modulation of macrophage phenotype by cell shape. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 110(43), 17253-17258.
Main advances
Macrophages are very crucial, especially in regulating immunity during the healing of wounds and infections. Their behaviors in regulation are controlled by the soluble factors of the environment. Adhesive cues are also vital in the regulation of the pro healing and proinflammatory of the cell (McWhorter et al. 2013). The authors used engineered cell culture substrates in their research to control the shape of the cell to find out if the cell's elongation promotes a pro-healing phenotype. Furthermore, the authors identify molecular pathways that transduce the physical cues to biochemical cues governing the cell's response in regulating the macrophage function. 
Methods
A total of five methods were used in achieving the objective of the research. This includes; cell isolation n and culture, cell micropatterning and evaluating the morphology of the cell, immunoassays, cytometry, and immunofluorescence imaging, and statistical analysis. In the isolation of the cell and culture, the BMDM were derived from the femurs of six-twelve weeks old mice. Cell micropatterning was conducted by the use of stamps of 20 μm and 50 μm. The cells were then analyzed in terms of cell area and elongation (McWhorter et al., 2013). Flow cytometry and western blotting were performed using various antibodies in accordance with the threshold protocols. The patterned and the unpatterned were then inducted into the pharmacological inhibitors, calbiochem, and cytochalasin. All the data was then analyzed and presented as the mean ± SEM while comparisons were noted.
Results
The authors found out that the macrophage polarization state is related to the changes in the shape of the cell. This is accounted for by the induction of M1 or M2 polarization by the cytokines culture derived from the bone marrow-derived macrophages (McWhorter et al., 2013). In addition, the elongation of the cell is a result of M2 polarization. Furthermore, the authors noted that the macrophage elongation is a stimulating factor of polarization towards the M2 phenotype. Micropatterning was used in the geometry of cell adhesion. Although the elongation influences the M2 phenotype, it does not influence the inflammatory elongation of the cell. The authors also found out that the macrophage elongation synergizes with the cytokines in regulating polarization in the cell (McWhorter et al., 2013). The elongation enhances the arginase expression that is induced, thus limiting the expression of the iNOS. This result indicates that when the cell elongation is prevented, it prevents the full activation n of the M2 polarization.
Menk, A. V., Scharping, N. E., Moreci, R. S., Zeng, X., Guy, C., Salvatore, S., ... & Delgoffe, G. M. (2018). Early TCR signaling induces rapid aerobic glycolysis enabling distinct acute T cell effector functions. Cell reports, 22(6), 1509-1521.
Main advances
T cells always perform aerobic glycolysis in fulfilling the biogenetic demands. In this process, the glucose is always fermented into lactate instead of being oxidized in the mitochondria. The T cells are always regulated by balancing multiple signals. These signals are responsible for enhancing the activation of the pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase 1 (PDHK1) (Menk et al., 2018). The PDHK1 promotes the inhibition of the mitochondria inhibition which facilitates the breakdown into lactose. According to the authors, the way PDHK1 is inhibited is vital for the synthesis of cytokines but not cytotoxicity. Menk et al. (2018) suggest that "cytokines is regulated by the lactose dehydrogenase which presses the cytokine mRNA translation when n the aerobic glycolysis is omitted," This bases the thesis of the research in that the authors objective is to validate the metabolism contributes to the effector T cell and how it may be tuned through glycolytic modulation.
Methods
The mice used in the experiment were under a free pathogen environment in which both the male and female mice were used in the experiment. The mice used were six to eight weeks old. The T cell isolations were conducted on the two mice, and three sub-divisions were induced: the lymph node, the CD8 T cells, and the spleen. Furthermore, the researchers performed the PA-RT cell generation before isolating it from the CD4 and CD8. The spleen, which was harvested from the OT-1, was stimulated by the peptide with the peprotech included for one day (Menk et al., 2018). The cells were then subjected to expansion to complete the supplemented RPMI for a day in different quantities which lasted for four days and also two days. Furthermore, metabolic assays were performed in which the naïve cells were placed on the coated seahorse in the assay media, which consist of minimal buffered DMME that is facilitated by 1% of the BSA, 1 mm sodium pyruvate, and 2mm glutamine. Thereafter, the basal rates were taken for a period of thirty minutes (Menk et al., 2018). Several inhibitors were used during the experiment to alter the cell's overall performance, such as the actinomycin, cycloheximide, LCK, Akt, and ERK. The lactate which was traced in the experiment was measured using the calorimetric kit. Besides, the retroviral of the RNA interference was transduced while the puromycin was omitted in the selection. Furthermore, immunoblotting and immunoprecipitation analysis was performed in which sev...