Emily Dickinson and the Ambiguity of Death: A Reader-Response Approach

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Emily Dickinson and the Ambiguity of Death: A Reader-Response Approach
Death has been a captivating and puzzling mystery for humanity throughout history. The exact nature of what occurs after we die, as well as the implications it holds for our existence, remains unknown. Nevertheless, death resonates universally and deeply, motivating poets and literati to delve into its complexities and convey their thoughts and emotions through their works. Focusing on the poetry of Emily Dickinson, one of the most influential American poets of the nineteenth century, this paper analyses how she challenges her audience’s agency through her ambiguous portrayal of death and invites readers to grapple with its uncertainty and complexity. In other words, Dickinson utilizes ambiguity as a literary device to create multiple and diverse meanings and emotions of death and to engage the reader in an active and creative process of co-constructing meaning. This paper will examine how Dickinson achieves this effect through her language, style, and themes and how her poetry differs from and subverts the conventional views and values of her society and culture. It will also discuss the impact and implications of Dickinson’s work on the literary expression and exploration of death and the reader’s understanding and appreciation of death. By the end of this paper, the reader will gain a deeper and richer insight into the poetry of Emily Dickinson and the ambiguity of death.
Historical and Cultural Context
Emily Dickinson was born in Amherst, Massachusetts, in 1830 and died in 1886, a time that witnessed significant changes and challenges in American history and culture (Habegger). The Civil War (1861-1865) was a bloody conflict that divided the nation over slavery and its expansion (poetryfoundation.org). Dickinson’s poems about death often reflect the violence and suffering of the war and the uncertainty and anxiety of the times. For instance, in “My Life Had Stood - a Loaded Gun -” (1863), Dickinson compares herself to a weapon ready to fire at any moment, suggesting a sense of danger and power. In “They Dropped like Flakes -” (1864), she describes the fallen soldiers as snowflakes that cover the ground, implying the coldness and indifference of death.
The rise of science in the nineteenth century challenged Dickinson’s society’s traditional religious views and values. Scientific discoveries, such as those by Charles Darwin, Thomas Huxley, and others, questioned the biblical account of creation and God’s role in the natural world. Dickinson’s poems about death often express her doubts, curiosity, and fascination with the scientific explanations and mysteries of the universe. For example, in “I Felt a Funeral, in my Brain” (1862), Dickinson uses metaphors of scientific phenomena, such as the “Plank in Reason (line 17)” and the “Boots of Lead (line 11),” to describe her mental breakdown and loss of faith. In “The Brain - is wider than the Sky -” (1863), she compares the human mind to the vastness of the sky, the sea, and God, suggesting a sense of awe and wonder (American Poetry and Poetics).
The nineteenth century saw the decline of religion as a result of the social and intellectual changes that challenged Christian doctrine and morality. Dickinson grew up in a Calvinist family and community, influenced by Puritanism's strict teachings and practices. However, she also witnessed the rise of religious diversity and dissent, such as the Second Great Awakening, Transcendentalism, and Unitarianism (emilydickinsonmuseum.org). Dickinson’s poems about death often reveal her struggles, questions, and criticisms of her culture's religious beliefs and values. For example, in “Some Keep the Sabbath Going to Church -” (1863), Dickinson mocks the conventional rituals and worship symbols, claiming that she prefers to stay home and enjoy nature. In “Because I Could not Stop for Death -” (1863), Dickinson portrays death as a polite gentleman who takes her on a carriage ride and challenges the traditional notions of the afterlife, judgment, and salvation.
The nineteenth century was also characterized by the emergence of new literary movements that responded to modern society's cultural and artistic needs and demands. Various literary sources and styles influenced Dickinson, such as British Romanticism, the American Renaissance, Gothic fiction, and the hymn meter. She also developed her unique and innovative voice and expression, which set her apart from the mainstream and popular poets of her time (Luebering). Dickinson’s poems about death often demonstrate her originality and creativity, as well as her defiance and subversion of the conventional norms and expectations of poetry. For example, in “After Great Pain, a Formal Feeling Comes -” (1863), Dickinson uses paradoxes, understatement, and dashes to convey the numbness and shock of grief. In “The Bustle in a House” (1866), she uses simple and domestic images, such as sweeping, putting away, and closing the door, to suggest the emptiness and finality of death.
An Analysis of Poems
Dickinson’s "I Felt a Funeral in My Brain" (1862) poem describes the speaker's experience of a mental breakdown and a loss of self as if she were attending her funeral. The central theme of death in this poem is the death of reason and identity, symbolized by the funeral, the mourners, the service, the drum, the box, and the bell. The speaker feels a sense of detachment and alienation from the world as she hears the mourners "treading - treading" (line 3) and the drum "beating - beating" (line 7) in her brain. She also feels a sense of despair and hopelessness as she realizes that her "mind was going numb" (line 8) and that she has "Finished knowing" (line 20). The poem ends with a dramatic image of the speaker falling into an abyss, suggesting a complete collapse of her consciousness and existence.
Dickinson’s "The Bustle in a House" (1866) depicts the aftermath of a death in a household and the routine and ritual actions that the survivors perform to cope with the loss. The central theme of death in this poem is the death of a loved one, symbolized by the house, the sweeping, the putting away, the closing of the door, and the stillness. The speaker uses simple and domestic language to convey the sense of emptiness and finality that death brings and the contrast between the busy and the quiet moments. The speaker also implies acceptance and resignation, as the speaker does not express any grief or emotion but states the facts in a matter-of-fact tone. For example, the speaker says, "The Sweeping up the Heart / And putting Love away" (lines 5-6), inferring that the heart and the love that were once alive and active are now swept up and put away and that they will not be used again until eternity.
"After great pain, a formal feeling comes" (1863) portrays the state of mind and body of a person who has suffered a great pain, such as a death, a loss, or a trauma. The poem's central theme is the death of feeling and sensation, symbolized by the nerve, the heart, the hour, the frost, the stone, and the wood. The speaker uses paradoxes, understatement, and dashes to convey the numbness and shock that follow a great pain and the difficulty and uncertainty of expressing it. The poem also suggests a sense of transition and transformation, as the speaker compares the pain to a "formal feeling" (line 1) that precedes a "letting go" (line 13), implying a possible release or relief. For instance, the persona says, "The Nerves sit ceremonious, like Tombs" (line 2), denoting the nerves, which are supposed to be sensitive and responsive, are now rigid and lifeless, like tombs. The speaker also says, "This is the Hour of Lead" (line 10), indicating that the pain is a heavy and dull state of mind that may be remembered only if outlived.
Ambiguity and Language
Through her language, syntax, and punctuation, Dickinson uses ambiguity to portray death in her poems. Ambiguity creates multiple meanings and interpretations of death, challenging readers to question their assumptions and expectations (Sclama). Ambiguity also affects the poems' tone, mood, and message, such as the irony, the paradox, the understatement, the dash, the capitalization, et cetera (Sitanggang, 9).
Referential ambiguity
Dickinson uses ambiguous language also to explore the various aspects and dimensions of death, such as the emotional, the philosophical, the spiritual, and the physical. She often uses words that have contradictory meanings, such as "formal," "contentment," "lead," "wooden," et cetera. She also uses metaphors, similes, and symbols that evoke different and diverse images and associations, such as the funeral, the house, the nerve, the heart, the hour, the frost, etc. For instance, in "After great pain, a formal feeling comes" (1863), the word "formal" can mean either rigid, polite, or ceremonial, depending on the context and the perspective of the reader. The term "contentment" can mean either satisfaction, resignation, or indifference, depending on the poem's tone and mood. The word "lead" can mean either a heavy metal, a bullet, or a clue, depending on the poem's image and message.
Syntactic ambiguity
Dickinson utilizes ambiguous syntax to create and convey the complexity and uncertainty of death, such as the structure, the order, and the logic of the sentences and the poems. She often uses inversion, ellipsis, and anaphora to alter and challenge the language's conventional and expected patterns and meanings. Besides, she uses dashes, commas, and capitalization to interrupt and emphasize the poem's flow and rhythm. For example, in "I Felt a Funeral in my Brain" (1862), the inversion of the subject and the object in the first line creates a sense of confusion and disorientation for the speaker and the reader. The ellipsis of the verb in the last line makes a sense of suspense and incompleteness for the speaker and the reader. The anaphora of the words "treading" and "beating" creates a sense of repetition and intensity for the speaker and the reader.
Structural ambiguity
Dickinson uses ambiguous punctuation to enhance and modify the expression and impression of death, such as the sound, the voice, and the tone of the poems. She often uses dashes, commas, and capitalization to create pauses, breaks, and emphases in the poems. She also uses quotation marks, question marks, and exclamation marks to indicate speech, doubt, and emotion in the poems. In "The Bustle in a House" (1866), the dashes at the end of each line create a sense of abruptness and finality for the speaker and the reader. The dashes also slow the poem's pace, giving the speaker an uncertain and hesitant voice. In the fourth line, the persona says, “Enacted upon Earth -” which brings about an uncertain feeling, a hiatus, and unsuspected finality… acting more of a cliffhanger. Capitalizing the words "Heart" and "Love" also creates a sense of importance and significance for the speaker and the reader.
Comparison with Other Authors
Emily Dickinson's portrayal of death differs from that of other authors of her time, such as Walt Whitman and Edgar Allan Poe, among many others, in several ways. One of the main differences is that Dickinson uses ambiguity to create multiple and diverse meanings and emotions of death. At the same time, the other authors tend to use more precise and direct expressions of death.
Walt Whitman celebrated life, democracy, and nature in his works. The Civil War also profoundly affected him, which inspired him to write poems reflecting the war's violence, suffering, and heroism. Whitman’s framing of death is often realistic, patriotic, and optimistic,...