The Declining Coral Reefs in Indonesia

2012-03-25 21:23:00 Paper looks amazing; you did a great job. There are a few areas that I've highlighted in red that is either awkward sentence structuring or I honestly am not sure what you're trying to say. If you could fix those highlighted areas and then leave them highlighted so I can see what areas you've changed. And also, the table of contents for some reason isn't working so if you could fix that as well we should be good to go! Thanks :)
Environmental Sustainability: The Declining Coral Reefs in Indonesia
Bryan Oborne
March 30th, 2012
Joanna Stamatis 1167035
Environmental Sustainability
TABLE OF CONTENTS
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Introduction
This paper reviews the sustainability of coral reefs in Indonesia by discussing some of most significant and prominent research works and their results from the scholars on the issue, followed by a general literature review to consider and evaluate some definitive recommendations and solutions to protect the coral reefs from further damage.
El Niño Related Coral Bleaching In Palau, Western Caroline Islands
Bruno, J. F., Siddon, C. E., Witman, J. D., Colin, P. L. and Toscano, M. A. (2001) Coral Reefs 20: 127-136
In this paper, the authors discuss causes and effects of bleaching on the coral reefs of Southeast Asia by investigating and analyzing the Palau coincident of El Niño Southern Oscillation in 1997-1998. The term bleaching for coral reefs refers to a progression that drives out the photosynthetic algae (sing. alga) from the polyps or stomach of the corals (Blackman, 2004). The alga is also known as zooxanthellae and it helps the corals to survive by providing nutrients to the corals. In the case of bleaching, the alga is ejected from the core of the corals and that causes loss of pigment.
In the Palau incident in 1997-1998, the temperature of the local sea surface was raised by about one degree Celsius, causing 53.4% bleaching to the coral tissues at 3 to 5 meters depth. About half (48%) of the 946 colonies, which were surveyed, were totally bleached with additional 15% being partially bleached corals (Bruno et al. 2001).
From a marine biological point of view, this is an extreme condition as the concentration of zooxanthellae is changing constantly and the reason behind that is the increasing temperature of the earth due to the greenhouse effect. This is a universal problem and is currently considered as the top environmental threat around the world. According to marine biologists and oceanographers, the increased temperature melts down the membrane of algae, bringing out the organisms from inside. The organisms consider this as a threat and as a defense mechanism, they eject the algae. As soon as the algae bar the coral, they have nothing to eat and eventually die. However, there might be some ways to prevent this scenario. Scientists have found that there are some factors behind the attack and not all corals are affected by bleaching. It is often found that both non-bleached and bleached corals are living side by side for a long time. Researchers are now working on determining the factors and discovering a cure.
Interaction of Ocean Acidification and Temperature, the High Cost of Survival in the Brittlestar
Wood, H., Spicer, J. I., Kendall, M. A., Lowe, D. M. and Widdicombe, S. (2010) Ophiura Ophiura. Marine Biology.157, 2001-20132
The authors have studied the cause, nature and outcome of acidification on coral reefs. They have described that the corrosive characteristics of under saturated water put grave risk to the marine invertebrates with respect to calcium carbonate shells. What makes it worse is the fact that there is no way to fossilize the skeletons under such conditions. The increment of carbon dioxide emission into the atmosphere decreases the rate of pH in ocean water which causes more carbon dioxide melting into the ocean. Two major calcifying segments of the reefs, the calcifying macro algae and corals, are critically threatened by this action. It also has a similar hazardous effect on the organisms that rely on them for living.
Both green algae and red algae are extremely acidification sensitive as their structure is made with calcium carbonate. It is nearly impossible for these calcifying macro algae to reproduce calcium carbonate with the lowering pH level that they can maintain their skeletal structure. Just like with corals, the acidification is a prominent threat to echinoderms like sea urchins and sea stars as well as to mollusks including clams and squid. The list does not end here as almost every oceanic organism is affected by acidification in one way or another. The overall outcome is a serious warning towards the marine ecosystem. Wood et al. (2011) also found out that the rising temperature as well as acidification in ocean water would create a synergistic effect over the whole marine biological environment which is magnifying acidification of the ocean water.
Ocean Acidification and Warming Will Lower Coral Reef Resilience
Anthony, K., Jeffrey, M., Peter M., Paul M., and Long C. (2011) Global Change Biology. Volume 17, Issue 5 pp. 1798-1808
Based on the model by Mumby et al. (2007), Anthony et al. (2001) have developed a method to find the consequences of global warming and acidifications on the coral reefs in Indonesia and other Southeast Asian reefs in the Indian Ocean. In their computer stimulation model, they used benthic system, identified by three major groups including free space, fleshy macro-algae and branching corals. They have found that the presence of higher carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere is a major threat in this region due to local scale disturbances such as over fishing and using explosives for fishing. In many researches, it has been found that the reef resilience can also be reduced because of acidification and global warming even if they have very low nutrient concentration and grazing intensity. In addition to all, the rate of phase shifting of coral algal is also abridged because of global warming and oceanic acidification. The overall result of the effect will magnify the changes of marine biology.
In the conclusion, the authors mentioned that their quantitative analysis for finding a simple model of resilience pattern focused on two major principles which include rapidly decreasing and stabilizing the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and enhancing efforts for local reef management.
Nutritional Status and Metabolism of the Coral Stylophora Subseriata along an Eutrophication Gradient in Spermonde Archipelago (Indonesia)
Sawall, Y., Teichberg, M.C., Seemann, J., Litaay, M., Jompa, J. and Richter, C. (2011). Coral Reefs (2011) 30:841-853 doi 10.1007/s00338-011-0764-0
Sawall et al. (2011) initiated research on the metabolism and nutritional status of Indonesian coral reefs. Their findings mostly discussed the response of the coral reefs due to degrading quality of ocean water and its effect on the surrounding environment. One of the foremost threats for the coral reefs is Eutrophication which affects the ecological balance between the macro algae and corals as well as the whole structure of coral reefs. By nature, the corals are capable of changing and adapting to changes so as to maintain a proper balance in sediment and nutrient supply and the process varies a lot from species to species. This practice helps the corals to live in an environment where the supply of nutrient is inadequate.
Both photosynthesis and heterotrophy are very crucial for corals as both of them have been recognized as crucial attributes for calcification. The later one supports the functions of zooxanthellae as well. However, the calcification does not depend only on the metabolic actions. The authors also found out that other environmental factors have great influence on the calcification and to be specific, it is common to find negative outcome of inorganic nutrients in a calcium carbonate precipitation (Ferrier-Pages et al. 2000; Marubini and Davies 1996).
Episodic Heterogeneous Decline and Recovery of Coral Cover in the Indian Ocean
Ateweberhan, M., McClanahan, T. R., Graham N. A. J. and Sheppard C. R. C. (2011) Coral Reefs 30:739-752 doi10.1007/s00338-011-0775-x
According to the authors, some of the species in the coral region have shown strong resistance against sedimentation and eutrophication where the rest are very sensitive and cannot protect themselves against any aggression. In evaluating the main drivers, timescales of changes and magnitude, it has been found that changes in coral covers for a long time have considerable usefulness. Coral cover is quantitative measure of the present condition of the coral reef which can be estimated by linear transect, the quadrat or photoquadrat.
This is a very serious issue regarding adaption of changing environment. The changing process of coral cover follows a systematic way. The process started in Southeast Asia around the 1980s and since then, it is a continuous event unlike many other places in the world, where the changing process takes a much longer period.
Currently, there are multiple pressures associated with coastal development; eutrophication and resource extraction are closing in on coral reefs. Frequent thermal changes along with acidification have a great effect on the reefs and they have a close relation with movement of coral cover. Although the decline of the coral cover in Southeast Asia started in the 1980s, it has been uniform since then. However, with time, many factors, like temperature anomaly, have been integrated within the system that slowed down the process. The recommendations by the authors were to find solutions against climate changes, global warming and ocean water acidification; and if that does not happen, according to the authors, it is more likely that the future of coral reefs will go under the water, not just in Indonesia but all over the world.
Extinction Vulnerability of Coral Reef Fishes
Graham N. A. J., McClanahan T. R., MacNeil M. A., Wilson S. K., Polunin N. V. C., Jennings S., Chabanet P., Letourneur Y., Ohman M.C. and EVANS R. D. (2011) Ecol Let 14:341-348
The living organisms which comprise coral reefs and their possible future impacts, associated with global climate change, are considered. According to the finding, only one third of total reefs build and bear living organisms and only one third of this one third is threatened due to the change. Unfortunately, the largest portion of these species under threat is located in Indonesian coral reefs. The study also focused on the outcome of man-made causes such as fishing that destroy the reefs as using explosives is a common occurrence in this region even after setting law against it.
For last 50 years, the percentage of degraded reefs increased from 10% to 50% in Indonesia and the rate is growing fast. The condition is worse in Western Indonesia. This part of the country is well developed and holds the majority of the overall population of the country. According to surveys, the coral reefs in eastern Indonesia are in much better condition than the west. About 45% of reefs in the eastern side are in excellent condition, versus over 23% of the western side. Approximately 60% of the damage was caused due to explosions while fishing. The survey also revealed that pollutions from the main land have a large contribution in destroying the reefs. The loss of diversity is 40-60% at ten meters depth where the rate is 30-50% at three meters. The El Nino in 1997-1998 caused most of the damages in western Indonesia. The El Nino triggered an extensive bleaching which was recorded in Lombok, Java, Sumatra and Bali.
Reefs at Risk in Southeast Asia
Lauretta, B., Selig, L. and Mark S. (2011) UNEP WCMC, Cambridge, UK
The authors identified sedimentation as the major problem in the coral reefs in Southeast Asia. The main reason for sedimentation is agricultural overflow and land development and they have presented that most countries in this region are changing rapidly in terms of construction development and that leads to deforestation. The construction ventures close to coastlines brings massive sediment corroding. It also slows down the covering process of the corals. The waste from construction sites reduce sunlight and clog the opening of the corals, bringing death to the whole colony. This also has a huge negative impact on the growth of algae. Unluckily, the growth of sedimentation is increasing very fast in Southeast Asia as the economy in this zone is growing fast.
Burke et all (2011) discussed the proposed solutions of the problem. To protect the reefs, Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) have been declared and currently about 8% of the total area is protected which is significantly very low progression as it will take till 2020 to cover 200,000 square kilometers where in 2010, the total protected area were 100,000 square kilometers. The World Commission of Protected Areas helped to build MPAs to look over the coral reefs in Southeast Asia. In the list of MPAS, Indonesia, along with Philippines have the far most importance than any other part of Southeast Asia. However, a lot more work is required to reach success and to make the reefs safe from any kind of threat. In addition to MPA, Locally Managed Marine Area (LLMA) is working for marine conservation in Southeast Asia and it has been successful in Eastern Indonesia to create a safety zone.
Rising To the Challenge of Sustaining Coral Reef Resilience
Hughes, T. P., Graham, N. A. J., Jackson, J. B. C., Mumby, P. J. and Steneck, R. S. (2010) Trends Ecol Evol 25:633-642
The main framework of the reefs is built by corals therefore, it is easy to understand that lessening coral abundance as well as all relative factors will cause serious imbalance in the whole system, and affect fisheries, ecological services and biodiversity. Hughes et al. (2010) stated that the decline of corals has caused shifts in supremacy from macro algae to hard corals as well as other benthic functional groups which are invertebrate dominated. Their research mainly focused on the coral cover and the cover usually defines the abundance of the coral which is related to the entire area that is enclosed by benthic biota. This function is very important as the benthic interactions are regulated by the size of the space of the cover. This factor is widely used for measuring the output of environmental gradients.
However, there are limitations, according to Hughes et al (2010), it is not always possible to measure the changes in the composition regarding species and ecological processes. In a large scale disturbance, coral cover can be a very useful benchmark which is often linked with several stress attributes. Coral reefs are the biggest supplier of calcification and thus have a vital part in ecological facilitators. This clearly affirms that declining coral cover has sustainable negative impact on marine biology. The cover of coral stands as the parameter to measure the health condition and status of the reefs from different point of views including ecological processes, shifting dominance and economic service to other living organisms; mostly human.
Executive Summary
The coral reefs in Southeast Asia are well known for supporting biodiversity in greater range and extent than any other marine ecosystem around the globe. The coral reefs in Indonesia and the Philippines contain some 77 percent of total coral reefs area in the region, contributing impact for communities in this area. The reefs also have a huge influence on the economical and biological value of the society. Coral reefs bring ecosystem services to coastline protection, fisheries and tourism. The reefs absorb wave energy and protect the shoreline. The coral reefs of Southeast Asia yield about $2.4 billion worth seafood per year. However, due to their sensitive nature, Southeast Asian coral reefs face many ecological threats including pollution, sedimentation and overfishing.
Currently, about 50 percent of total coral reefs in Southeast Asia are under high risk of damage and over 85 percent of the threatened reefs are located in Indonesia and Malaysia. Unfortunately, the coral reefs of Southeast Asia, mostly in Indonesia, have been neglected the most regardless of the fact that numerous research and discussions have been placed on the topic; although the position of nutritional status and adaptation potential of the species of the reefs are yet to be found. Questions related to the sustainability of coral reefs are not limited only to Southeast Asia. Rather, there are global implications which are closely related to other significant concerns as predicted by the scientists to occur in the near future. Coral reefs around the world are dying fast. About 10% of total reef consumption in the world is already dead and 60% is under grave risk due to human related activities. By the year of 2030, about 90% of reefs will be in great risk which will reach to 100% in 2050.
Issues concerning the sustainability of coral reefs in Indonesia have become a matter of global concern and scientists and researchers around the world are working on identifying the major problems and their causes as well as finding solutions for the problems. Some of the most recent and significant papers on the topic that clearly stated important issues on the coral reefs in Indonesia are discussed in the following sections.
Coral Reef Issues
In Indonesia, the total marine area is 2,915,000 square kilometers and the reef area is 51,020 square kilometers which is about 17% of the total reef area around the world. Over 82% of total reefs in Indonesia are under risk due to many reasons by both nature and human activities. Indonesia contains approximately 17% of total global reef area (Spalding, M.D., Ravilious...