Scholarly Writing (Health, Medicine, Nursing Lab Report)
Your Session Long Project for this course comprises writing an 8- to 10-page paper on a health science-related topic of your choice. However, you must do so in accordance with the steps outlined in each SLP assignment. This will ensure that you have applied the resources introduced in this course toward development of a scholarly paper befitting graduate-level scholarship.
We are approaching the conclusion of your Session Long Project. For this next component of your SLP, you will use the outline you created in Module 2 to draft your final paper. As you undertake this process, be sure to keep in mind the concepts, skills, and techniques introduced and/or applied in previous modules of the course. If you have questions related to the application of any of these, please contact your professor immediately.
Upload this initial draft of your final paper at the end of this module.
Length: A minimum of 8 double-spaced pages (excluding the cover page and the reference list).
Format: APA format is required for this assignment.
****Guidance from module 2(pasted paper below)****
This next SLP component comprises two parts.
Part I: You will develop and submit annotated bibliographies on the topic you have chosen.
Use the 8-10 scholarly sources/materials you identified in your Module 2 Case Assignment.
Identify two additional scholarly articles from professional journals.
Apply the evidence analysis techniques introduced in the Case Assignment for this module as you review all scholarly sources/materials you found.
Develop and submit your annotated bibliographies with at least 10 scholarly articles from professional journals. Information on annotated bibliographies can be found at https://owl(dot)purdue(dot)edu/owl/general_writing/common_writing_assignments/
annotated_bibliographies/index.html.
A sample of APA annotation can be found at https://owl(dot)purdue(dot)edu/owl/general_writing/common_writing_assignments/
annotated_bibliographies/annotated_bibliography_samples.html
Length: The written component of this assignment should be 4-5 pages long (double-spaced).
Format: APA format is required for this assignment.
Part II: You will identify the purpose of your literature review.
Identify the functions you will employ in your paper as identified in the Case Assignment for this module. For example, will your paper aim to describe, to compare and contrast, to classify, to explain cause/effect, or to present a particular argument? Or will it attempt some combination of these?
Using your approved project topic, present an outline of your paper as a first step toward structuring your writing. Refer to “Sample Outlines” handout from the Background Information page of this module for guidance. The basic structure of your outline should be as follows:
Introduction
Body
Main Idea #1
Supporting details
Examples
Main Idea #2
Supporting details
Examples
Main Idea #3
Supporting details
Examples
Etc.
Summary and Conclusion
Upload your annotated bibliography as well as your outline at the conclusion of this module.
Prescription Drug Abuse
Part I: Annotated Bibliography
Introduction
Research is an exciting section in academic work or scholarly work. It is often essential to use credible sources to be authentic and qualify as a source of information and resource for current and future use. Various opinions and results exist on prescription drug abuse, but we can only accept opinions and results accompanied by credible evidence to the claims. However, the sources' credibility is determined by further observing the book source, article, and the authors. The study on prescription drug abuse is only credible if credible information sources support it.
Article #1 Grecu, A. M., Dave, D. M., & Saffer, H. (2018). Mandatory Access Prescription Drug Monitoring Programs and Prescription Drug Abuse. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management. doi:10.1002/pam.22098
This article researched and estimated the effects of prescription drug monitoring programs, PDMP, whose key mandate targets access to Rx drugs' nonmedical use. Grecu et al. (2018) based the study on the objective of drug abuse indicators prescribed by the substance abuse, treatment admissions, and the deaths linked to the Rx drug. The estimate did not show any tangible effect of implementing an operational PDMP. However, the study found that compulsory access provisions that raised the utilization rates of the PDMP by demanding providers to question the PDMP before prescribing a controlled drug showed a high relationship to the reduction in Rx drug abuse. This article is important to my research because it deals with prescription drug abuse and includes the role of the PDMP.
Article #2 Randy Wykoff, MD, M. T., & Egen, O. (2018). The 12 P's of the Prescription Drug Abuse Epidemic. American journal of public health, 108(9), 1124-1125.
This article provides a political interpretation of drug abuse prescription. The 2016 political alignments show that 70 percent of Republican regions registered a higher percentage of opioid abuse. Still, Randy and Egen (2018) assert a more complex reason for drug abuse than political affiliations. However, they noted a significant regional variation in opioid drug abuse. The article also asserts that the labor force participation reduced in counties where more opioids were prescribed. This article will be instrumental in my study in linking political activities and economic movements in prescription drug abuse.
Article #3 Shupp, R., Loveridge, S., Skidmore, M., Green, B., & Albrecht, D. (2020). Recognition and stigma of prescription drug abuse disorder: personal and community determinants. BMC Public Health, 20(1). doi:10.1186/s12889-020-09063-z
This journal sought to improve the understanding of stigma associated with prescription drug abuse and its symptom recognition. Shupp et al. (2020) used the logit estimation method to analyze a sample of 631 obtained randomly through an online survey. The result showed that most people who reported to have encountered prescription drug abuse could not identify the condition and were at a high risk of stigmatization. Females were more likely to identify prescription drug abuse than men, while older respondents of 55 years and above identified prescription drug abuse more correctly than the young averaging 34 years old. The younger population is also likely to face more stigmatization compared to the old. The study recommended public education and outreach to help those affected. This journal is useful for my study because it explores prescription drug abuse and compares it with all the demography and stigma.
Article #4 Compton, W. M., & Volkow, N. D. (2006). Abuse of prescription drugs and the risk of addiction. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 83, S4–S7. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2005.10.020
The article investigated the best practices to prevent and treat adolescence besides developing strategies to curb the diversion and abuse of any medication meant for treatment purposes. Campton and Volkow (2006) based their study in the US due to the rising number of prescription drug abuse cases in the country. The study will help inform my work because it is based in a country where prescription drug practice is rampant.
Article #5 Lev, R., Lee, O., Petro, S., Lucas, J., Castillo, E. M., Vilke, G. M., & Coyne, C. J. (2016). Who is prescribing controlled medications to patients who die of prescription drug abuse?. The American journal of emergency medicine, 34(1), 30-35.
The journal investigated medical examination reports of prescription of drugs linked to the deaths in San Diego in 2013. Lev et al. (2016) performed a prescription drug monitoring program on each case to confirm the physician who prescribed the doses to the casualties. They found out that 4.5 percent of physicians in the county prescribed killer drugs to patients. The pain prescribers gave the highest number of killer prescriptions while the emergency physicians were the least in the sequence. They concluded that emergency physicians contribute the least to prescription drugs that cause deaths, although they contributed significantly to physicians. The journal will help develop my study by learning the prescribing nature and trends of different physicians.
Article #6 Li, B. T., Moukaddam, N., Parks, K. D., & Shah, A. A. (2018). When Treatment Turns to Addiction: Emerging Issues in Over-the-Counter and Prescription Drug Abuse. Psychiatric Annals, 48(8), 379-383.
This article discusses quetiapine, gabapentin, bupropion, loperamide, zolpidem, and promethazine drugs and their general knowledge of their misuse, including any addictive characteristics. Much is known about the correct prescription of these medicines, but more research is needed to ascertain their increasing misuse. Li et al. (2018) intended to raise clinical awareness of prescription drug abuse's medical consequences. This research is important to my study because it explores the root cause of prescription drug abuse in the drugs listed above.
Article #7 McCabe, S. E., Cranford, J. A., & West, B. T. (2008). Trends in prescription drug abuse and dependence, co-occurrence with other substance use disorders, and treatment utilization: results from two national surveys. Addictive behaviors, 33(10), 1297-1305.
The research analyzed trends in prescription drug abuse and dependence. It also aimed to determine the co-occurrence with the use and abuse of other substances and the treatment utilization among the people affected by prescription drug abuse. McCabe et al. (2008) found out that the abuse of opioid drugs increased from 1991 to 2001. This shows that it is important to keep close monitoring due to the increase in drug abuse dependence, causing a worrying trend. This will help develop the argument in my study as it tries to explain the increase in prescription drug abuse.
Article #8 Hwang, C. S., Turner, L. W., Kruszewski, S. P., Kolodny, A., & Alexander, G. C. (2015). Prescription drug abuse: a national survey of primary care physicians. JAMA internal medicine, 175(2), 302-304.
Hwang et al. (2015) used the Dillman approach to carry out a thousand physician participants' mail survey. They aimed to examine physicians' beliefs and self-reported practices concerning prescription and the use of the opioid drug. More than half of the sampled physicians reported prescription drug abuse as a big to moderate problem within their communities. They admitted that opioid is among the most abused drugs. Most physicians expressed top concern for the abuse of opioids, which causes accidents. This is essential information to support my research since it considers the physician's encounter with prescription drug abuse.
Article #9 Hagemeier, N. E., Tudiver, F., Brewster, S., Hagy, E. J., Hagaman, A., & Pack, R. P. (2016). Prescription drug abuse communication: A qualitative analysis of prescriber and pharmacist perceptions and behaviors. Research in social and administrative pharmacy, 12(6), 937-948.
The journal explored quantitative communication behaviors and communication metrics on trait level before qualitatively describing communication behaviors and perceptions of prescription drug abuse among drug prescribers and pharmacists. The study that used a sample of thirty-five focus groups reported that prescription drug abuse communication is uncomfortable, multifactorial, and mostly avoided. This information is also helpful in my study, as it will shed life on the role of communication in prescription drug abuse.
Article #10 McHugh, R. K., Nielsen, S., & Weiss, R. D. (2015). Prescription drug abuse: from epidemiology to public policy. Journal of substance abuse treatment, 48(1), 1-7.
This journal gives an epidemiologist the opinion that prescription drug abuse has escalated to an epidemic level in the United States. The 1990s escalated the prescription drug abuse problem raising global concerns. This article is fundamental in expanding my study because it gives an expert's opinion on the problem.
Part II: Purpose of Literature Review and Paper Outline
Purpose of Literature Review
It is crucial to test the significance of any problem before deciding to pursue it. Hence, the importance of validating the prescription drug abuse problem. A literature review provides background information into previous research that has been conducted about prescription drug abuse. The research problem has sections that the literature review will help to compare for a comprehensive conclusion (Coughlan & Cronin, 2020). The literature review provides an avenue for comparing known causes and factors that lead to the prescription drug process.
Prescription drug abuse has become a global epidemic raising concerns on the misuse of medicine. The economy is deteriorating because addicts and people affected by the misuse of drugs are not productive, affecting the production rate. These are effects that change over time, necessitating an updated study to study the trends. Even as current trends are examined, it is crucial to recap other studies done by earlier scholars to guide the current study and determine the gaps in the problem. Most importantly, it aims to shape the current study on the difference by comparing prescription drug abuse trends.
Deaths that prescription drug abuse cause increases gradually over time. These deaths attract the attention of the human conscience that wants to change the situation. Scholars will research the causes and possible remedies to the problem while journalists and other media platforms educate and sensitize people on the problem brought about by prescription drug abuse (Coughlan & Cronin, 2020). This helps to save human life from deaths and other health-related issues.
A literature review is very important because it informs us about intervention measures that have been put in place by the government and other stakeholders in talking about the problem. Health professionals play a significant role in influencing action plans to curb the problem. Literature review informs us of the same if any efforts have been invested or not. In turn, this shapes the future plan. Stakeholders use a literature review to determine the kind of remedies that are not effective and disregard them besides putting aside the effective ones for active applications.
Conclusively, the world will always face such epidemics as prescription drug abuse. It is good to conduct continuous research to establish the dynamics in prescription drug abuse so that improved ways of dealing with it can be devised. The world is safe when health issues are dealt with to ensure people are physically and mentally fit.
Paper Outline
I. Introduction
• Prescription drug abuse is a problem that arises when people take medication for reasons not prescribed by a doctor. Experts estimate that in the US, more than 18 million people of ages more than twelve
• Abusing prescribed drugs alter the functioning of the brain
• There is a need to examine causes and effects then address the problem
II. Body
• Commonly abused drugs: Three classes of prescription drugs are often misused according to the National Institute on Drug Abuse, it gives three categories as the most abused drug prescription classes.
o Opioids: They are life-threatening if overdosed or taken alongside substances like alcohol.
o Central Nervous System depressants
o Stimulants
• Prescription drug abuse risks: Research has suggested certain factors make people prone to abuse prescription drugs.
o Peer influence
o Mental health
o Genes or a person's biology
o Age
o Lack of knowledge on the dangers of prescription drug abuse
• Signs and symptoms of prescription drug abuse: They vary depending on the abused drug.
o Anxiety and depression
o Poor coordination
o Mood swings
o Difficulty in breathing
o Dizziness
o Poor judgment
o Difficulty walking
o Slow reflex
o Memory loss
o Insomnia
o Headache
o Varying heart rate
• Why prescription drug abuse is on the rise
o Availability of the drugs
o Teens taking medication from their parents' cabinets
• Treatment for prescription drug abuse: The most effective ways include medication and counseling.
• Prevention of Prescription Drug Abuse: The following guideline helps in safe medical prescription
o Follow the doctor's instruction strictly
o Read instructions carefully
o Seek information on abusing a certain drug
o Be honest with your doctor
o Do not share prescriptions with other people
• Warnings for prescription drug abuse: One should never use opioids and central nervous system depressants with:
o Sleep medication
o Anesthesia
o Alcohol
o Barbiturates
o Asthma medication
o Antidepressants
III. Summary and Conclusion
• Prescription drug abuse is a global problem that should be addressed
• The governments need to implement policies that help to curb the prescription drug abuse
References
Grecu, A. M., Dave, D. M., & Saffer, H. (2018). Mandatory Access Prescription Drug Monitoring Programs and Prescription Drug Abuse. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management. doi:10.1002/pam.22098
Randy Wykoff MD, M. T., & Egen, O. (2018). The 12 P's of the Prescription Drug Abuse Epidemic. American journal of public health, 108(9), 1124-1125.
Shupp, R., Loveridge, S., Skidmore, M., Green, B., & Albrecht, D. (2020). Recognition and stigma of prescription drug abuse disorder: personal and community determinants. BMC Public Health, 20(1). doi:10.1186/s12889-020-09063-z
Compton, W. M., & Volkow, N. D. (2006). Abuse of prescription drugs and the risk of addiction. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 83, S4–S7. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2005.10.020
Lev, R., Lee, O., Petro, S., Lucas, J., Castillo, E. M., Vilke, G. M., & Coyne, C. J. (2016). Who is prescribing controlled medications to patients who die of prescription drug abuse?. The American journal of emergency medicine, 34(1), 30-35.
Li, B. T., Moukaddam, N., Parks, K. D., & Shah, A. A. (2018). When Treatment Turns to Addiction: Emerging Issues in Over-the-Counter and Prescription Drug Abuse. Psychiatric Annals, 48(8), 379-383.
McCabe, S. E., Cranford, J. A., & West, B. T. (2008). Trends in prescription drug abuse and dependence, co-occurrence with other substance use disorders, and treatment utilization: results from two national surveys. Addictive behaviors, 33(10), 1297-1305.
Hwang, C. S., Turner, L. W., Kruszewski, S. P., Kolodny, A., & Alexander, G. C. (2015). Prescription drug abuse: a national survey of primary care physicians. JAMA internal medicine, 175(2), 302-304.
Hagemeier, N. E., Tudiver, F., Brewster, S., Hagy, E. J., Hagaman, A., & Pack, R. P. (2016). Prescription drug abuse communication: A qualitative analysis of prescriber and pharmacist perceptions and behaviors. Research in social and administrative pharmacy, 12(6), 937-948.
McHugh, R. K., Nielsen, S., & Weiss, R. D. (2015). Prescription drug abuse: from epidemiology to public policy. Journal of substance abuse treatment, 48(1), 1-7.
Coughlan, M., & Cronin, P. (2020). Doing a literature review in nursing, health and social care.
Scholarly Writing
Student’s Name
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Scholarly Writing
Introduction
The phenomenon of drug abuse, especially on prescription drugs and medications, is a worrying concern in the U.S. Prescription drug misuse is a critical public health issue in the U.S. Prescription drug misuse contributed to approximately 52,404 deaths, 63.1% of which revolved around opioids (Shupp et al., 2020). Other findings show worrying trends where surveys show that about 15 million Americans aged 12 and above experienced drug-related prescription misuse in 2003 (Compton & Volkow, 2006). Over 50 million persons, or approximately 20 percent of the population from the age of 12 onwards, have misused prescription drugs in their lifetime in 2015 (Grecu, Dave & Saffer, 2019).
Prescription drug abuse is a prevalent problem globally. Prescription drug abuse occurs when the medications are taken for reasons other than those prescribed by physicians. Prescription drug abuse is a problematic phenomenon. The use of drugs, for other reasons, not within the confines of physicians' directions, constitute drug abuse and can often lead to increased compulsion despite its adverse consequences. Diversion of prescription or treatment drugs for non‐medical purposes is a worrying public health concern. Prescription drug abuse (PDA) disorders partly underpin the current American opioid crisis. The prescription drugs commonly abused include opioid painkillers, anti-anxiety medications, sedatives, and stimulants. This misuse of prescription drugs can quickly cause addiction with associated adverse effects. People often abuse prescription drugs for many reasons, including social pressure, experimenting with their outcomes or effects, reducing stress, feeling high or good, and enhancing alertness. The frequently abused drugs activate the brain's reward center, leading to continual misuse of prescription drugs, even when the effects relating to such usage are deleterious. It is critical to identify prescription drug abuse cases and take measures to tame to prevent various problems such as addiction.
Commonly abused drugs, Effects and Symptoms, Access, Causes, and Associated Morbidities and Mortalities
Abuse of various prescription drug classes has a remarkable spike in the U.S recently characterized by worrying rates of abuse of drugs such as opioid analgesics and stimulants. Evidence demonstrates an increase in prescription drug abuse and dependence in the U.S from 1991–1992 to 2001–2002, and such a spike coincides with a shift in substance abuse behaviors of individuals entering substance abuse treatment (McCabe, Cranford & West, 2008). The research findings show that most individuals with prescription drug use disorders also met the DSM-IV criteria for an additional co-occurring substance use disorder (McCabe, Cranford & West, 2008). Prescription drugs that feature in misuse fit into similar pharmacological classes as their non-prescription counterparts (Compton & Volkow, 2006). Thus, the adverse outcomes regarding abuse or addiction versus safe therapeutic use of medication are determined by factors such as dose, route of administration, administration with other drugs, the context of use, and goals (Compton & Volkow, 2006). The prescription drugs may show similarities to those of the same drug classes as the usual illicit drugs. Drugs like methylphenidate and amphetamines belong to a stimulatory category, while hydrocodone and oxycodone function like opioids, like heroin. The pharmacological factors linked to abuse and addiction to non-prescription drugs compare to prescription drug abuse.
In general, the doses used appropriately for medical purposes are often lower than those involved in abuse. For instance, the quantities of methylphenidate used for attention deficit disorder are primarily below the level expected to generate reinforcement. However, the situation for opioid analgesics is different because the doses required in some cases for sufficient pain control can be identical to those taken by drug abusers. Also, non-drug abusing can experience unfavorable effects from doses of opioid analgesics reported being highly reinforcing by persons addicted to these substances. Thus, there is a need to highlight individual variations in the sensitivity to these drugs' reinforcing effects. The frequency of drug abuse may determine the risk of abuse and addiction, which may relate to the total dose administered and the intervals between doses. These details regarding drug usage may either enhance or limit the chances for the neuroadaptations that lead to addiction. In this way, even an oral administration route can be reinforced if high doses are administered frequently and at short intervals (Compton & Volkow, 2006).
Taking PDA drugs with other psychoactive drugs such as sedatives and alcohol) or stimulants and nicotine can cause more reinforcements, leading to increased risks of addiction. Like many other drug-related conditions, prescription drug abuse features prominently among adolescents and young adults, yet their associated effects remain uncertain in adolescence. During this developmental stage, rapid brain growth and development raises concerns on prescription drug abuse outcomes that may cause neurobiological changes and behavioral consequences that contrasts with those seen in adults (Compton & Volkow, 2006).
There is a range of drugs often misused by people for purposes that are not necessitated by medical conditions or reasons. The prescription drug abuse epidemic is occasioned by opioid prescribing, with approximately 75 % of overdoses contributed by opioid pain relievers, and their related mortalities have quadrupled since 1999 (Grecu, Dave & Saffer, 2019). The authors observe that various factors, including the rules and regulations liberalizations in the 1990s by state medical boards controlling opioid analgesics prescriptions for chronic non‐cancer pain, adoption of more aggressive approaches to pain management and the emerging presence of new drug brands like OxyContin in 1996, have elicited tremendous rise in the use of opioids as pain relievers. Although the increased presence of opioid drugs has creates better pain management approaches, it has cause unwanted effects, including additions to opioids and overdoses.
Randy Wykoff & Egen (2018) identified factors that modulate and define prescription drugs abuse in what they termed as “12 P’s of the prescription drug abuse epidemic” comprising predatory promotion, profligate prescribing, physical pain, psychologic pathology, punishment policies, psychologic pathology, punishment policies, and pervasive poverty. Predatory promotion entails marketing practices and strategies adopted by some pharmaceutical products as they relate to increasing opioid prescriptions in given regions. Profligate prescribing involves the observations that there has been a strong push to boost pain treatment, which caused a substantial increase in providers' opioids prescriptions due to the need to help patients and motivation of profit. However, it is challenging to distinguish between opioids prescribed for pain and those used for medication-assisted treatment (Randy Wykoff & Egen 2018).
The increased use of opioids or any other analgesics or sedatives that are susceptible to abuse has been partly mediated by the increased need to manage the physical pain. According to Randy Wykoff & Egen (2018), the areas with the highest opioid prescribing rates are marked by increased employment opportunities in various areas such as coal mining, logging, construction, manufacturing, and associated activities. These areas are characterized by an acute and chronic injury that causes pain, leading to long-term treatment use of opioids, thereby magnifying fueling the current epidemic of prescription drug abuse or misuse. Chronic pain is one of the most frequent reasons for seeking medical care in the U.S, and such pain is often managed by prescribing opioids. The clinical use of opioids doubled between 2000 and 2010, accompanied by an increase in opioid abuse, addiction, injury, and death (Hwang et al., 2015).
The rising causes of psychopathologies embody the underpinnings of the contemporary use of prescription drugs subject to abuse for non-intended purposes. The concept of psychological pathology emerges due to dwindling employment opportunities, thereby increasing hopelessness and depression, contributing to drug abuse to evade and cope with such circumstances. Many displaced workers who are facing despair and depression became dependent on opioids to deal with daily challenges. These situations have been aggravated by increased sidelined of workers who abuse drugs, leading to the cyclic phenomenon where hopelessness and depressions are alternating with drug abuse (Randy Wyckoff & Egen, 2018).
Punishment policies have been identified as critical reasons underlying the increased abuse of prescription drug abuse. It is more likely to incarcerate drug users rather than offer comprehensive treatment, thereby leading to a vicious circle that does not control root causes of drug use and puts offenders or drug abusers in a poorly equipped system to promote recovery and better outcomes. This situation is aggravated when people with a history of incarceration and drug abuse return to the streets and, with less drug tolerance, overdoses when reintroduced to opiates (Randy Wykoff & Egen, 2018). Finally, pervasive poverty contributes to the increasing prevalence of prescription drug abuse. Almost every county with a high drug death rate is poor, but not all poor counties have a high...
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