Social Darwinism, Terence Powderly, and Homestead, Pennsylvania

History of Labor
Part 1
1. Social Darwinism
In the late 19th and early 20th century, Darwinists believed in the survival of the fittest and subscribed to justifying conservatism, racism, and imperialism, among others. On the industrial front, employers instituted several measures to goad their employees into being more productive. In this regard, they began exerting more strictness on formal work rules through new management systems (Clark et al., 2000, chapter 1). In addition, they introduced sophisticated technological advancements to effectively control work progress. Equally critical, many industrial leaders employed corrupt and underhand means to solicit favors from politicians. Mostly, the industrial leaders sought government intervention to suppress workers' agitation for reforms by quelling strikes, sometimes violently. Most of them found it much easier to manipulate the federal government than state governments, resulting in the upsurge of federal injunctions. One of the most notable figures of social Darwinism was Andrew Carnegie. In his consuming bid to dominate his industry, he combined ruthless employee management and bold technological innovations. For instance, he designed elevated trains to carry coal overhead in Braddock, Pennsylvania. He became immensely dominant and formulated what he referred to as the gospel of wealth. Workers, on the other hand, crafted a prayer in his honor known as the Workman's Prayer.
2. Terence Powderly
The emancipation declaration by President Lincoln paved the way for further agitation to free workers from the clutches and domination of the labor market. The period was famously known as "reconstruction," which initiated a struggle to define the essence of freedom. A cocktail of promise and danger characterized that particular era as workers fought for freedom and people of class for dominance. One prominent movement that advanced the rights of workers was the Knights. In actual fact, the group founded in 1869 morphed into the first national labor organization in the 1880s (Gourevitch, 2020). Its most charismatic leader was Terence Powderly, who led the Knights for 15 years. Among other things, Powderly agitated racial solidarity among workers. For instance, during a Knight’s general assembly in 1886 in Richmond, Virginia, he deliberately allowed a black worker to introduce him (Gourevitch, 2020). Among many other functions of the Knight, it instigated workers to down their tools if their demands were not met. In 1887, for instance, the movement goaded black cane cutters to strike after their demands for higher wages hit a brick wall. Even though the strike ended disastrously, and with the massacre of striking workers, it set a monumental precedent on the industrial front. In summation, the Knights articulated their objectives through a language of freedom for workers.
3. Homestead, Pennsylvania
In 1892, one of the most famous workers’ strikes took place in Andrew Carnegie's steel mill in Homestead, Pennsylvania. Homestead was one of the most advanced mills in the world and offered comparatively higher wages to its employees. However, the workers consensually felt Carnegie needed to do more to improve their collective welfare. Therefore, in 1892, matters came to a head against the backdrop of Carnegie’s concerted efforts to emasculate his workforce. The standoff between him and his workers degenerated into a physical conflict between the Pinkerton agents hired by Carnegie and striking steelworkers (Clark, Chapter 2: Community and Conflict, 2000). When the workers overpowered the agents, Carnegie turned to the governor of Pennsylvania for assistance. Subsequently, the governor obliged and sent militia and strikebreakers to quash the strike. The reinforcement eventually overwhelmed the steelworkers, which demonstrated that might is more powerful than right. In other words, it showed that no matter how well-organized workers were, they could not win over the coalition of their employers and the government. The defeat dealt a staggering blow to the workers’ belief in their powerful craft organization. They also learned about the interests of governments in labor-capital conflicts.
4. Eugene V. Debs
In the late 19th century, a businessman called George Pullman found himself smack in the eye of a storm. He owned the Pullman Company and employed hundreds of employees who resided in Pullman town. Owing to worsening depression at the time, Pullman resolved to dismiss a third of his employees and cut the wages of the remaining ones by over 40%. Workers expressed their displeasure and sought to hold negotiations with the company. When efforts to hold talks with Pullman hit a snag, workers staged a mass walk-out on May 11, 1894, in protest. They sought the support of the American Railway Union (ARU), led by a charismatic activist, Eugene V. Debs (Clark et al., 2000, chapter 3). Debs was also a politician who vied for the presidency severally. With over 150,000 members, ARU was the fastest-growing union in the United States. Besides charging comparatively low dues than AFL, ARU accepted all white workers regardless of their level of skills. After being approached by Pullman’s employees for help, Debs called for all trains to boycott Pullman’s cars, which, in essence, meant a national strike. For his troubles, Debs was arrested and subsequently consigned to prison. Just like the Homestead strike, Pullman’s strike outlined the lines of class struggle.
5. International Ladies Garment Workers Union
Women's activism in the 19th and 20th centuries was central to pioneering reform causes in the United States. One of their fundamental objectives was seeking government-oriented solutions to societal problems. In the early 19th century, women, mostly immigrants, began working in sweatshops that manufactured garments. A majority of them complained about unsanitary working conditions, such as sweating in steaming shops during summer. As such, they participated in a series of spontaneous strikes to force reforms. The strikes were relatively unsuccessful, but in 1909, circumstances took a new paradigm shift. Disgruntled garment workers held a monumental meeting in New York City's Cooper Union Auditorium to articulate their numerous grievances (Clark et al., 2000, chapter 5). They protested...