Functionalism, Conflict Theory, and Symbolic Interactionism

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Functionalism
According to the functionalism theory, society is a complex system of interconnected parts that function together to contribute to social order and stability (Smith, 2020, p. 119). It emphasizes the importance of social institutions, starting from the smallest unit, the family, and even the larger units, such as education, religion, and the economy, which play a vital role in maintaining order and stability. Emile Durkheim first developed the theory, and other notable theorists such as Talcott Parsons and Robert Merton later expanded and elaborated on the theory. These functionalists highlight the importance of social institutions, social facts, and consensus in ensuring that society operates smoothly and that individuals know their roles and responsibilities within society.
Emile Durkheim, one of the pioneers of functionalism, argued that social facts have an independent existence and should be studied scientifically. He believed that social institutions perform vital functions, including creating social order, providing socialization, and promoting moral cohesion. Durkheim’s work also highlighted the importance of social norms and values in shaping individuals’ behavior and attitudes (Smith, 2020, p. 12).
Later, Talcott Parsons expanded on Durkheim’s ideas and developed a comprehensive social action theory. According to Parsons, social action is the behavior of individuals in response to social norms and values (Smith, 2020, p. 137). He identified four functional imperatives that social systems must meet to maintain equilibrium: adaptation, goal attainment, integration, and latency. Adaptation refers to adjusting to changing environmental conditions, while goal attainment involves achieving society’s objectives. Integration refers to coordinating different parts of society, and latency refers to maintaining cultural patterns and values over time.
Meanwhile, Robert Merton, another functionalist theorist known as the founding father of sociology, highlighted the perspective of manifest and latent functions. Manifest functions are institutions' intended and acknowledged effects, whereas latent functions are unintended and undetected (Smith, 2020, p. 114). For instance, education’s manifest function is to provide students with knowledge and skills, but the latent function can be to promote socialization and social mobility. Merton also created the notion of anomie, the disintegration of social norms. He argued that social inequality and stratification could lead to anomie and cause deviant behavior in individuals.
Scholars criticize functionalism theory for its conservative bias and failure to account for social change and conflict. Critics argue that functionalism prioritizes social order and stability over individual freedom and progress. However, functionalism has significantly contributed to sociology, emphasizing social institutions, norms, and values and how various parts of society collaborate to uphold order.
In conclusion, functionalism is sociological, which sees society as a complex system with various components that collaborate to sustain order. Some theorists give light on the idea, such as Durkheim, who highlighted the significance of social facts and institutions in creating social order and promoting moral cohesion, and Parsons, who developed a theory of social action, which identified four functional imperatives that social systems must meet to maintain equilibrium, and Merton, who focused on the concept of manifest and latent functions and developed the concept of anomie, which refers to a breakdown of social norms. Even though scholars criticize functionalism for its conservative bias, it has significantly contributed to sociology and helped researchers understand how society functions and maintains social order.
Conflict Theory
Conflict theory focuses on the conflicts and struggles arising from society’s disparate allocation of power, wealth, and opportunities. Conflict theorists argue that society is not a harmonious whole but composed of conflicting interests and that these conflicts drive social change. However, some scholars criticize this theory for its overemphasis on conflict and its under-emphasis on social cooperation and stability. However, it has still made significant contributions to sociology, emphasizing the significance of power and inequality in forming relations and its attention to how social change affects society.
Karl Marx is one of the most influential thinkers in conflict theory. He claimed that society has a history of conflict between the ruling class, the proletariat, and the working class. Marx believed that the capitalist system is inherently exploitative and that the bourgeoisie extracts surplus value from the proletariat’s labor, leading to the alienation of the workers from their labor and the means of production. Marx also held that the proletariat's ultimate objective is the downfall of the bourgeoisie and the establishment of a socialist society in which the means of production are owned and controlled collectively (Staubmann, 2021, p.188).
Max Weber, another conflict theorist, focused on the role of power and authority in society. He argued that power is not just held by those who own the means of production but also by those who have positions of authority in social institutions such as the government, the legal system, and the media. Weber believed that different forms of power exist, including traditional, charismatic, and rational-legal authority (Turner, 2020, p. 87). He also introduced the concept of the iron cage of rationalization, which refers to the increasing bureaucratization and rationalization of modern society, leading to the loss of individual freedom and creativity (Turner, 2020, p. 86).
C. Wright Mills, a contemporary of Weber, criticized the functionalist perspective and argued that power is the fundamental feature of society. Mills believed that people's power in the community is unequal, with the ruling class holding most of it and using it to maintain dominance (Staubmann, 2021, p.178). He coined the phrase "power elite," which describes the select group of people who control society’s power structures, including politicians, business executives, and military leaders. Mills argued that the power elite makes decisions that benefit their interests rather than the interests of the majority of the population.
In summary, conflict theory is a sociological viewpoint that emphasizes how conflict, inequality, and power all play a role in forming society. Marx argued that society comprises conflicting classes, with the ruling class exploiting the working class. Weber focused on the role of power and authority in society, arguing that power is held not just by those who own the means of production but also by those with positions of authority in social institutions. Mills criticized the functionalist perspective and introduced the concept of the power elite, who make decisions that benefit their interests rather than the interests of the majority of the population. This theory has been criticized but has significantly contributed to sociology.
Symbolic Interactionism
A sociological viewpoint known as symbolic interactionism focuses on how people communicate, use symbols and interact. This perspective emphasizes the importance of the meanings people assign to things and how those meanings shape their behavior and interactions with others. For instance, the American flag is a symbol that represents the United States and its values. Thus, the symbols are not inherently meaningful; instead, they acquire meaning through people’s interactions. According to symbolic interactionists, people develop meaning through their interactions with others, and that meaning is constantly evolving and changing due to those interactions. In this view, individuals are not passive recipients of social norms and values but active participants in creating and shaping those norms and values. Therefore, this perspective pr...