Structures of Neurons and Brain

Physiological Psychology Essay
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1 What are the basic structures/functions of a neuron? How do neurons communicate?
The structure of neurons varies and includes anaxonic, pseudounipolar, bipolar, and multipolar. The differences between these neuron structures depend on the arrangement and number of dendrites and axons. Neurons are also characterized by extended processers that derive from the soma or cell body. The cell body incorporates different organelles, including the nucleus, which facilitate neuronal function. Dendrites could be single or many and are linked to one neuron based on location and function. Dendrites facilitate independent communication with different neurons and also take part in protein synthesis. Axons normally culminate into a terminal where neurohormones, neuromodulators, and neurotransmitters are freed in electrical to chemical signal conversion, potentially crossing the neuromuscular or synapse junction. Proteins such as dynein and kinesin facilitate axonal transport (Ludwig et al., 2022). Different interrelationships among neurons facilitate impulse transmission to augment diverse roles in the body.
According to Sivadas and Broadie (2020), neurons send and receive information by sharing messages employing an electricity form. The flow of charged particles or ions moving across the cell's exterior membrane creates this type of electricity. The flow of ions potentiates electrical waves along the neuron's length. The electrical signal shifts from one specific neuron to another via transmitters that move across the synapse to create new electrical waves within that cell (Sivadas & Broadie, 2020). Another kind of communication between neurons entails light. This is anchored on the premise that neurons can produce light and could utilize this to share information from one to another. This phenomenon is called ultra-weak photon production or biophotons. Neurons can utilize biophotons to share messages with each other concerning homeostasis and activity (Moro et al., 2022). Sending and receiving information by biophotons moves preferentially along different established brain axon pathways.
2 What are the major structures of the brain? What is the function of each major structure?
Jawabri and Sharma (2022) state that the brain has three major structures or divisions: the cerebellum, brain stem, and cerebrum. The cerebellum has different functions, including controlling voluntary movement coordination, receiving sensory messages from the spinal cord and brain, and fine-tuning motor activity accuracy and precision. The cerebellum also assists in different cognitive roles, such as language, fear memory, response to pleasure, and attention (Maldonado & Alsayouri, 2023).
The cerebrum controls sensory and motor information, behaviors linked to unconsciousness and consciousness, memory, intelligence, and feelings. It contains convolutions and folds on its surface (Maldonado & Alsayouri, 2023). Jawabri and Sharma (2022) state that the cerebrum comprises the right and left hemispheres. The primary function of the right hemisphere is to control spatial thinking or, rather, thinking that relates to establishing meaning in phenomena, location, orientation, size, and shape. In contrast, the left hemisphere controls abstract thinking and speech. Abstract thinking is the ability to make sense of things not present. In addition, the cerebrum comprises four lobes: the parietal lobe, frontal lobe, occipital lobe, and temporal lobe, all of which facilitate the components' overall function (Maldonado & Alsayouri, 2023).
The brainstem is the bridge connecting the cerebellum and cerebrum to the spinal cord. It contains the medulla, pons, and midbrain. This structure incorporates the primary centers facilitating autonomic functions, including respiration, temperature regulation, breathing, heart rate, digestion, swallowing, vomiting, coughing, and wake-sleep cycles. The brainstem contains gray and white matter. The white matter comprises neuronal cell axons (fiber tracts) descending from the cerebral cortex to facilitate voluntary motor function. The fiber tracts also travel down from the peripheral nerves and spinal cord, enabling the movement of somatic information to the highest components of the brain (Maldonado & Alsayouri, 2023).
3 Discuss the major techniques of brain research. Include pros and cons associated with each.
The primary techniques of brain research include magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), Positron emission tomography (PET), and electroencephalogram (EEG). MRI is anchored nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) principle and utilizes radiofrequency waves to investigate tissue function and structure without ionizing radiation exposure. It has become the most crucial brain research technique in neuroscience because it offers several benefits. First, the radiofrequency signals easily pass through the spinal column and skull, allowing the imaging of tissue with little interference. Second, radiofrequency power is non-ionizing, thus making it safer compared to computerized tomography (CT) scanning. MRI also offers optimal visualization of spinal cord and brain tissue abnormalities. The demerit of MRI is that individuals with pacemakers and metallic implants cannot undergo it because of possible adverse interactions between radiofrequency and magnetic fields (Dana Foundation, 2019). Lastly, MRI may be unsafe for kidney disease patients.
PET is a brain research technique that measures the brain's physiological functioning. One of the primary advantages of PET is that it is the only imaging approach capable of identifying trace picomolar concentrations in the brain, thus making it a unique molecular imaging modality. PET tracers are also designed with a high affinity for particular neurotransmitter receptors. Therefore, they can be used to establish their distribution within the brain and how such distribution is affected by disease. However, PET scanning can offer misleading outcomes when the patient h...