Vietnam: The War and its History

Interpretative Paper of Halberstam’s THE BEST AND THE BRIGHTEST in the Context of the Vietnam War Your name Subject and Section Professor’s Name May 17, 2024 The Vietnam War (1955-1975), a long period lasting nearly two decades, was the armed conflict between the communist government of North Vietnam – among which were its South Vietnam collaborators named Viet Cong – and the South Vietnamese authorities supported by its U.S. ally. This war endured for so long, and the intensity it had reached has been studied over and over again until today. Moreover, this war is no less critical in its global consequences than for American society. It was a moment of change throughout the Cold War, which left the United States and the USSR at odds geopolitically. The conflict played an essential role in U. S. foreign and domestic policies; it has caused contest among the citizens of the United States, which is anti-war, and it has left a significant aftermath on both Vietnamese people and their people. Accordingly, one of the seminal works discussed was David Halberstam's (1972) work entitled "THE BEST AND THE BRIGHTEST”. Notably, the author delves into the various factors that contributed to the U.S. involvement in the country's conflict and shows how the U.S. government made the wrong decisions. To begin with, the author at hand, a well-renowned journalist, throws light on the biographies of some policy advisers and intellectuals whom people affectionately call the 'whiz kids.' These people's wrongful perceptions and hubris played an integral part in the total misadventure of the U.S. in the Vietnam War. As he based every fact on meticulous research and in a manner he painted a picture; he made it crystal clear that the groupthink and the USSR political pressure caused these leaders' tunnel vision and finally closed their eyes to the Vietnam reality. The texts during this period cited these people's superior intelligence and achievements yet showed that they failed to grasp the natural dynamic of the war condition, leading, therefore, to detrimental, politically dangerous policies. This essay aims to explicate and examine the main themes and points of Halberstam's The Best and the Brightest, including some other essential materials and readings, to obtain possible fulfillment and completeness of the issue of the Vietnam War. This interpretative strategy aims to highlight the larger picture of historical events that resulted in the evolution of U.S. foreign policy. The analysis will draw on the Pentagon Papers, which offer a detailed account of U. S. government deliberations and actions; Ambassador Durbrow’s 1957 report on President Diem's regime, which highlights early American assessments and concerns; NSC 68, which outlines the strategic framework of the Cold War that shaped U. S. policies; and Major-General Edward G. Lansdale's article, which provides insights into the "people's war" nature of the conflict in Vietnam. By integrating these sources, this paper aims to contextualize Halberstam's critique within the larger narrative of the Vietnam War and evaluate his arguments' validity and implications. Historical Context and Background Before moving toward Halberstam's analysis, the author of this article believes that it is essential to first analyze the underlying historical context and background, which were not only discussed in the author's seminal work but also by other scholars who delve deeply into the topic. Vietnamese Cultural and National Identity Throughout history, one notable trait of Vietnamese identity includes its historical resistance to foreign invaders and a relatively powerful sense of patriotism, which is apparent in their personal and cultural traits. Accordingly, this national identity was heavily influenced by the existence of Chinese rule, which was over the Oktoh century, and this [China] left an unerasable mark on Vietnamese culture, language, and social structures. However, during French colonialism, starting in the mid-19th century, the impact on present-day Vietnamese national identity would become monumental as compared to the periods that came before it. Notably, French colonization brought Western education, the law system, and business practices to Vietnam. As a result, a new Vietnamese elite, educated in the French tradition and inculcated with this Western culture, emerged in the country. This elite, which, among others, found an advantage in the colonial system, also became the epicenter of the nationalist movement striving to reject foreign governance. Thus, by utilizing Vietnam's natural resources improperly and forcing heavy tax payments, the government of the French created a crisis in the economy, which, in turn, provoked nationalism among the broader population. Several people were also prominent in this emerging class during the said period. For instance, Ho Chi Minh served as one of the prominent figures who led the struggle for the independence of Vietnam; it was easier for the Vietnamese to fight a glorious war against the Japanese forces. Using his text and speeches, he puts forward an idea of one free and united Vietnam on the border, which would cost no foreign powers. Mihn's preliminary work criticized French colonialism's cruelty and racial prejudices he saw in the light of all the struggles of the people empire-building nations were subjecting in the world. For instance, his essay on lynching during the era of the United States was about how Africans were fighting for equality with their white neighbors. However, even though the African Americans fought for their rights, the Vietnamese were trying to end the colonial oppression (Duiker, 2000). Additionally, it is worth noting that Ho Chi Minh's leadership and ideological clarity were the principal factors that helped him win the support of the Vietnamese people in the struggle for independence. By the creation of VietMinh in 1941, his goal was to have all Vietnamese on board to fight against the Japanese as well as the French. In other words, the Viet Minh became not just a guerrilla army with its tactics but also a model to follow for any revolutionary movement that came after in Vietnam and beyond (Turse, 2013). Early Conflicts: French Indochina War Moving forward in time, the First Indochina War (1946-1954) was essential for the French colonial army to confront the Viet Minh Front led by Ho Chi Minh. As highlighted in Habelstram’s work, this war can be directly attributed to the general decolonization process following World War II when the former colonial territories that sought independence fought to achieve it finally. The war started the moment right after the Japanese withdrew from Viet Nam, and the Viet Minh took Hanoi and proclaimed the independence of Viet Nam on 2nd September 1945 (Duiker, 2000). However, the understanding between the French and the Viet Minh did not last long, and the seeming civil conflict turned into the first Indochina War. On the one hand, the French wanted to show their will to reconstitute the French colonial control, whereas on the other, the Viet Minh strove to gain complete independence. This led to the warring factions depending on extreme violence on the battlefield, devastation of cities, and enormous civilian casualties. One notable example of this as seen in the work was the combat of Dien Bien Phu in 1954, where Viet Minh fighters encircled and defeated a major French fortress, becoming the end of French colonialism in Indochina (Stanley, 1955). Interestingly, the USA’s role during that time was somewhat ambiguous. For example, the American Office of Strategic Services (OSS) – the precursor of the CIA – contacted Ho Chi Minh and Viet Minh during World War II. Accordingly, as they were fighting the Japanese, the Viet Minh was given training and supplies to the OSS to improve their fight. It is this collaboration, characterized by the common aspiration of vanquishing Axis powers, that established the basis for future interactions (Halberstam, 1972). Preventive Measures After the war, it is apparent that the Truman administration turned to keeping the red menace from extending beyond the borders of the countries where it had already gained the upper hand. Scholars and historians have agreed that this cultural change had resulted from widespread geopolitical tension between the U.S. and the Soviet Union, as expressed in the document by the National Security Council [NSC 68] (1950), which highlighted the idea of containment of Soviet expansion. As a result, the U.S. began supplying the French with funds and military resources that helped them retain their colonial power in Vietnam (Lovegall, 2014). On the one hand, it is worth noting that the alliance of the U.S. with France was mainly brought about by a fear that the parts of Southeast Asia might experience a "domino-like collapse" if Communism were allowed to dominate Vietnam. Such belief (which became popularly known as the Domino Theory) became the primary axiom in the U.S. foreign politics in Asia. Despite significant American aid, the French could not keep their colonial grip, which led to the Geneva Conference in 1954, at which they temporarily drew the country with the 17th Parallel and the promise of nationwide elections. On the other hand, early conflicts and French colonialism created specific conditions that gave rise to the Vietnam War, further transforming Vietnam's political and cultural fabric as well as paving the way for subsequent American involvement. As seen in Halberstam's work, these early interactions were messy, and the decision-makers made several missteps, which led to a deeper involvement in the U.S. This helps to understand the context of the events in the bigger picture. U.S. Involvement and Policy Decisions The Eisenhower Administration Moving forward, Halberstam's piece also showed how subsequent administrations have played a significant role in this war. For instance, the Eisenhower administration's involvement in Vietnam is seen in the background of French efforts to hold ont...