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Topic:

Communicable Diseases

Essay Instructions:

Epidemiology Paper





Write a paper (2,000-2,500 words) in which you apply the concepts of epidemiology and nursing research to a communicable disease. Refer to "Communicable Disease Chain," "Chain of Infection," and the CDC website for assistance when completing this assignment.

Communicable Disease Selection

Chickenpox

Tuberculosis

Influenza

Mononucleosis

Hepatitis B

HIV

Ebola

Measles

Polio

Influenza

Epidemiology Paper Requirements

Describe the chosen communicable disease, including causes, symptoms, mode of transmission, complications, treatment, and the demographic of interest (mortality, morbidity, incidence, and prevalence). Is this a reportable disease? If so, provide details about reporting time, whom to report to, etc.

Describe the social determinants of health and explain how those factors contribute to the development of this disease.

Discuss the epidemiologic triangle as it relates to the communicable disease you have selected. Include the host factors, agent factors (presence or absence), and environmental factors. Are there any special considerations or notifications for the community, schools, or general population?

Explain the role of the community health nurse and why demographic data are necessary to the health of the community.

Identify at least one national agency or organization that addresses the communicable disease chosen and describe how the organizations contribute to resolving or reducing the impact of disease.

Discuss a global implication of the disease. How is this addressed in other countries or cultures? Is this disease endemic to a particular area? Provide an example.

A minimum of three peer-reviewed or professional references is required.

Prepare this assignment according to the guidelines found in the APA Style Guide, located in the Student Success Center. An abstract is not required.

This assignment uses a rubric. Please review the rubric prior to beginning the assignment to become familiar with the expectations for successful completion.

You are required to submit this assignment to LopesWrite. Refer to the LopesWrite Technical Support articles for assistance.



Attached is the Rubric

{ Course Code Class Code Assignment Title Total Points

NRS-428VN NRS-428VN-O501 Epidemiology Paper 150.0



Criteria Percentage Unsatisfactory (0.00%) Less Than Satisfactory (80.00%) Satisfactory (88.00%) Good (92.00%) Excellent (100.00%) Comments Points Earned

Content 80.0%

Comprehensive Description of a Communicable Disease and the Demographic of Interest 10.0% Demographic of interest and clinical description are omitted or presented with many inaccuracies. Limited and/or vague summary of demographic of interest and communicable disease is provided. Overview does not offer a clear representation of information necessary for epidemiological study. Overview of the demographic of interest and clinical description of the communicable disease is presented with some inaccuracies of the clinical descriptors. Clinical description of the communicable disease and demographic of interest is provided. Summary is brief but accurate. Overview describing the demographic of interest and clinical description of the communicable disease is presented with a thorough, accurate, and clear overview of all of the clinical descriptors.



Determinants of Health and Explanation of How Determinants Contribute to Disease Development 10.0% Description of the determinants of health and their role in disease development is omitted or presented with many inaccuracies. Paper partially describes the determinants of health in relation to disease development. Paper identifies the determinants of health in relation to the communicable disease selected but does not include an explanation of their role in the development of disease. Paper describes each determinant of health with a comprehensive discussion of their contribution to disease development and progression. Paper comprehensively discusses the determinants of health in relation to the communicable disease, explains their contribution to disease development, and provides evidence to support main points.



Epidemiologic Triangle (Host Factors, Agent Factors, and Environmental Factors 20.0% Description of the epidemiologic triangle is omitted or presented with many inaccuracies. The communicable disease is described with some inaccuracies within the epidemiologic triangle. A visual description of the factors and interaction is not present. The communicable disease is described accurately and clearly within the context of the epidemiologic triangle. The communicable disease is described accurately within the context of the epidemiologic triangle. A brief description of factors and interaction is presented. The communicable disease is described thoroughly, accurately, and clearly within an epidemiological triangle. A visual description of the triangle and how the components of the model interact is included.



Role of the Community Health Nurse and Importance of Demographic Data 20.0% Discussion of the role of the community health nurse is omitted or unclear. An explanation of why demographic data are necessary to community health is omitted or unclear. Discussion of the role of the community health nurse is vague, with no integration of case finding, reporting, data collecting, data analysis, or follow-up skills. An incomplete explanation of why demographic data are necessary to community health is provided. Discussion of the role of the community health nurses is limited, with a brief overview of skills associated with community assessment and planning. An explanation of why demographic data are necessary to community health is summarized. Discussion of the role of community health nurse is clear, with a comprehensive description of skills associated with community assessment and planning. An explanation of why demographic data are necessary to community health is presented. Discussion of the role of the community health nurse is clear, comprehensive, and inclusive of the community nurse's responsibilities to primary, secondary, and tertiary prevention through tasks such as case finding, reporting, data collection and analysis, and follow-up. A clear explanation of the importance of demographic data to community health is presented.



National Agency or Organization That Works to Addresses Communicable Disease 10.0% Agency and description of contribution are omitted. An agency or organization is identified, but discussion is vague or inaccurate in relation to the communicable disease chosen. An agency or organization is identified, but discussion regarding efforts to address communicable disease is lacking. An agency or organization is identified, but discussion regarding efforts to address communicable disease is brief. An agency or organization is identified. A clear and accurate description of efforts to address communicable disease is offered.



Global Implication 10.0% Global implication of the disease is omitted or unclear. A discussion of the global implication of the disease is vague, with no integration of how this is addressed in other countries or cultures and if the disease is endemic to a particular area. An example is not provided. A discussion of the global implication of the disease is limited, with some integration of how this is addressed in other countries or cultures and if the disease is endemic to a particular area. An example is provided. A discussion of the global implication of the disease is clear, with a comprehensive description of how this is addressed in other countries or cultures and if the disease is endemic to a particular area. An example is provided. A discussion of the global implication of the disease is clear, comprehensive, and inclusive with a comprehensive description of how this is addressed in other countries or cultures and if the disease is endemic to a particular area. An example is provided.





Organization, Effectiveness, and Format 20.0%

Thesis Development and Purpose 5.0% Paper lacks any discernible overall purpose or organizing claim. Thesis is insufficiently developed or vague. Purpose is not clear. Thesis is apparent and appropriate to purpose. Thesis is clear and forecasts the development of the paper. Thesis is descriptive and reflective of the arguments and appropriate to the purpose. Thesis is comprehensive and contains the essence of the paper. Thesis statement makes the purpose of the paper clear.



Argument Logic and Construction 5.0% Statement of purpose is not justified by the conclusion. The conclusion does not support the claim made. Argument is incoherent and uses noncredible sources. Sufficient justification of claims is lacking. Argument lacks consistent unity. There are obvious flaws in the logic. Some sources have questionable credibility. Argument is orderly but may have a few inconsistencies. The argument presents minimal justification of claims. Argument logically, but not thoroughly, supports the purpose. Sources used are credible. Introduction and conclusion bracket the thesis. Argument shows logical progression. Techniques of argumentation are evident. There is a smooth progression of claims from introduction to conclusion. Most sources are authoritative. Clear and convincing argument presents a persuasive claim in a distinctive and compelling manner. All sources are authoritative.



Mechanics of Writing (includes spelling, punctuation, grammar, language use) 5.0% Surface errors are pervasive enough that they impede communication of meaning. Inappropriate word choice or sentence construction is used. Frequent and repetitive mechanical errors distract the reader. Inconsistencies in language choice (register) or word choice are present. Sentence structure is correct but not varied. Some mechanical errors or typos are present, but they are not overly distracting to the reader. Correct and varied sentence structure and audience-appropriate language are employed. Prose is largely free of mechanical errors, although a few may be present. The writer uses a variety of effective sentence structures and figures of speech. Writer is clearly in command of standard, written, academic English.



Paper Format (use of appropriate style for the major and assignment) 2.0% Template is not used appropriately, or documentation format is rarely followed correctly. Appropriate template is used, but some elements are missing or mistaken. A lack of control with formatting is apparent. Appropriate template is used. Formatting is correct, although some minor errors may be present. Appropriate template is fully used. There are virtually no errors in formatting style. All format elements are correct.



Documentation of Sources (citations, footnotes, references, bibliography, etc., as appropriate to assignment and style) 3.0% Sources are not documented. Documentation of sources is inconsistent or incorrect, as appropriate to assignment and style, with numerous formatting errors. Sources are documented, as appropriate to assignment and style, although some formatting errors may be present. Sources are documented, as appropriate to assignment and style, and format is mostly correct. Sources are completely and correctly documented, as appropriate to assignment and style, and format is free of error.



Total Weightage 100%



















WordsCharactersReading time
Essay Sample Content Preview:

Communicable Diseases: Tuberculosis
Your name
Subject and Section
Professor’s Name
December 15, 2019
Communicable diseases, also known as infectious diseases, are secondary to microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites or protozoa. These can be transmitted directly or indirectly through a chain of infection CITATION Wornd \l 1033 (World Health Organization, n.d.). The chain of infection establishes the connection among the agent, the host, and the environment. Using a portal of exit, the agent goes out of its reservoir or host and through a specific mode of transmission, it infects its new host via a portal of entry CITATION Cennd2 \l 1033 (Center for Disease Control and Prevention, n.d.).
One of the communicable diseases is Tuberculosis (TB). According to Center of Disease Control and Prevention (n.d.), tuberculosis is acquired through infection via Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M. tuberculosis). This bacteria has seven (7) intimately related types namely, M. bovis, M. africanum, M. microti, M. caprae, M. pinnipedii, M. canetti, and M. mungi. Together, these species of bacteria establish a disease known as TB complex CITATION Cennd5 \l 1033 (Center for Disease Control and Prevention, n.d.).
TB most commonly affects the lungs. However, it can also affect other organs or parts such as the liver, kidney, bones, spine, and others CITATION Cennd3 \l 1033 (Center for Disease Control and Prevention, n.d.).
Signs and symptoms
The signs and symptoms vary on the site where the bacteria penetrated. Typically, Mycobacterium tuberculosis multiplies in the lungs. When it infiltrates the lungs, it is called as pulmonary TB. The hallmark of pulmonary TB is caseous necrosis via granuloma formation. This produces lung cavitations typically found at the apex of the lungs in a chest x-ray due to a decreased aeration in the area CITATION Rav18 \l 1033 (Ravimohan, Kornfeld, Weissman, & Bisson, 2018). These pathologic findings are correlated to its characteristic signs and symptoms that include cough for greater than or equal to three (3) weeks, chest pain, hemoptysis, and productive cough. Its non-specific signs and symptoms include weakness or fatigue, weight loss, loss of appetite, chills, fever, dyspnea, and night sweats CITATION Cennd4 \l 1033 (Center for Disease Control and Prevention, n.d.).
There are infected people who do not manifest these signs and symptoms. This is called as latent TB infection. Here, the person’s immune system can halt the multiplication of bacteria leading to an asymptomatic phase. However, when the person becomes immunocompromised, these bacteria will multiply and establish an infection, thereby leading to TB disease CITATION Cennd4 \l 1033 (Center for Disease Control and Prevention, n.d.).
Mode of transmission
TB disease is an airborne disease transmitted through minute droplet particles of approximately 1-5 microns in size which can persist in air for several hours. Mycobacterium tuberculosis (agent) is transmitted from person-to-person inhalation of the droplet suspended in air or from a person who coughed, sneezed or sang (portal of exit) in front of the susceptible host CITATION Mal19 \l 1033 (Maltose, Poluta, & Douglas, 2019). This droplet passes through the host’s respiratory tract (portal of entry) and finally establishing an infection in the lungs. The infection in the lungs can be symptomatic, as seen in active TB disease, or asymptomatic, as seen in latent TB infections CITATION Cennd5 \l 1033 (Center for Disease Control and Prevention, n.d.).
Host susceptibility, infectiousness, environment, and exposure contribute to the probability of transmitting the disease CITATION Cennd5 \l 1033 (Center for Disease Control and Prevention, n.d.).
Complications
TB complications can produce another disease entity in the lung or when the bacteria form an infection in other sites of the body (extrapulmonary TB). These include the spine, liver, kidney, joints, brain, and heart CITATION Maynd \l 1033 (Mayo Clinic, n.d.).
Patients with pulmonary TB can develop pleural effusions or pulmonary fibrosis in long-standing lung infections CITATION Cennd5 \l 1033 (Center for Disease Control and Prevention, n.d.). TB in the kidneys can also result to nephrocalcinosis, a rare disease characterized by a high calcium deposition in the kidneys CITATION Mal191 \l 1033 (Malakar, Negi, Singh, & Sharma, 2019). On the other hand, central nervous system (CNS) symptoms occur when TB spreads to the brain or spinal cord. This can also be due to the affectation of the spinal column which consequently infects the spinal cord and its meninges CITATION Cennd4 \l 1033 (Center for Disease Control and Prevention, n.d.).
Treatment
The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved ten (10) drugs for the treatment of TB. The first-line drugs include isoniazid (INH), rifampin (RIF), ethambutol (EMB), and pyrazinamide(PZA) which needs to be taken for 6-9 months continuously CITATION Cennd6 \l 1033 (Center for Disease Control and Prevention, n.d.).
TB regimens are different for drug-susceptible TB and drug-resistant TB. For drug-susceptible TB, treatment is divided into 1-2 months of intensive phase and 4-7 months of continuation phase. The intensive phase has 4 regimens: Regimen 1 is used for new cases of TB. The drugs used include INH, RIF,EMB, and PZA 7 days a week for 56 doses (8 weeks) or 5 days a week for 40 doses (8 weeks); Regimen 2 is favored when frequent DOT cannot be achieved during the continuation phase.; Regimen 3 is utilized when the patient has HIV co-infection or presence of a cavitary disease. Misused doses can turn to a treatment failure. This regimen includes the same drugs taken 3 times weekly for 24 doses (8 weeks).; Finally, regimen 4 includes the same drugs taken 7 days/week for 14 doses then twice weekly for 12 doses.
The continuation phase is for patients who did not take PZA during the intensive phase or patients treated once a week with INH and rifapetine with positive sputum culture; patients with cavitary pulmonary TB and HIV-coinfection without antiretroviral treatment (ART) CITATION Cennd6 \l 1033 (Center for Disease Control and Prevention, n.d.).
Drug-resistant TB is secondary to a TB bacteria that are resistant to a minimum of one first-line anti-TB drug such as INH, PZA, EMB, and RIF. Multidrug-resistant TB (MDR TB) is resistant to two or more anti-TB drug and one of which has to be INH or RIF. On the other hand, extensively drug-resistant TB (XDR TB) is a sporadic type of MDR TB that is resilient to INH and RIF and an additional resistance to any fluoroquinolone and at least one of the three injectable second-line drugs such as amikacin, kanamycin or capreomycin CITATION Cennd6 \l 1033 (Center for Disease Control and Prevention, n.d.).
Demographics
TB belongs to the top ten causes of mortality. In 2018, around 10 million people (5.7 million men, 3.2 million women, and 1.1 million children cases) were infected with TB worldwide, 1.5 million of which died from TB. 251, 000 of these deaths are people co-infected with HIV CITATION WHO19 \l 1033 (WHO, 2019).
Additionally, approximately 87% of the global TB burden is from 30 highly endemic countries. Eight countries are responsible for the two-thirds of the total. These countries, arranged in descending order, are India, China, Indonesia, Philippines, Pakistan, Nigeria, Bangladesh, and South Africa CITATION WHO19 \l 1033 (WHO, 2019).
According to the World Health Organization’s (WHO) assessment in 2018, most of the 484, 000 new cases of TB with rifampicin resistance (78%) have multidrug-resistant TB (MDR-TB) CITATION WHO19 \l 1033 (WHO, 2019).
Tuberculosis as a notifiable disease
Since TB is a communicable disease, it is an obligation of the knowledgeable individuals to report its possible occurrence to the authorities. Anyone may report an alleged or confirmed case of TB to the authorized department or official within 24 hours. Furthermore, there are specific persons or departments are required to report. These are the healthcare providers, laboratories, administrators, federal or tribal entities, local state reports, infection surveillance staff, public health officials, coroners, administrators of congregate settings, emergency medical service personnel, law enforcement officers, firefighters, and persons in charge of food establishments CITATION Cener \l 1033 (Center for Disease Control and Prevention, 2010).
Tuberculosis and the social determinants of health
Physical Environment CITATION WHOnd \l 1033 (WHO, n.d.).
There are reported cases of active TB transmitted in the workplace especially in crowded and highly susceptible places such as prisons, healthcare facilities or institutions where persons with TB are aided, treated or imprisoned (Field, 2001).
Gender
Men are more susceptible than women with a ratio of 1.6:1 worldwide. This can be attributed to the increased exposure to risk factors of men such as smoking, silicosis, alcohol abuse, imprisonment, lung cancer, HIV, previous treatment of TB, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. The incidence of TB in men especially during the second decade of life (Marçôa, Ribeiro, and Duarte, 2018).
Socioeconomic Status and Education
According to Da Silva, Tigeh, Wirawan, and Made (2016), TB is more prevalent jobs such as farming as compared to home industrial jobs. The study also revealed that TB is more prevalent to people who have never gone to school as compared to people who were able to finish at least elementary education. On the oth...
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