Educational and Psychological Assessment of Exceptional Students

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Educational and Psychological Assessment of Exceptional Students
Question 1
Systematic observation is real life observation occurring in a natural environment and involves manipulation. There are five basic steps followed in systematic observation research. First is to select the aspect of behavior to be observed then followed by the definition of the specific behaviors which fall within the same aspect of behavior. Second is the training of observers for uniformity and standardization. The next is to quantify the observations using the standardized method and finally develop the procedures to facilitate the recording of the data (Bartram, 1995).
In probability sampling method, there is likelihood of everybody being selected, but the chance varies in every individual. Non-probability sampling method is where some individuals have no chance of selection. Using the non-probability method makes it impossible it to estimate how accurately the sample group represents the entire population. In choosing a sampling technique, it is important to consider the characteristics of behavior and social interactions that are relevant to the study population and the research questions. In most studies one will not have adequate empirical knowledge of the dependencies between relevant variables. Under these circumstances, the observer should avoid intrinsic biases to whatever extent possible. It will often be possible to use more than one sampling method in a study. Such samples can be taken successively or, under favorable conditions, even concurrently. The extent to which concurrent multiple sampling is feasible will depend very much on the behavior categories and rate of occurrence and the observational conditions. Where feasible, such multiple sampling can assist in the efficient use of research.
Achievement testing is very necessary in school programs. Published achievements have been widely used in many schools. There various published achievement tests for use which makes it easier to understand the strengths and weaknesses of tests. A standardized achievement test has features including items designed to evaluate the achievement domain directions for administering and scoring test, and norms based on representative groups of individuals such as the appropriate candidates. Achievement tests have been used to evaluate a child`s factual knowledge by testing what has been taught and administered regularly in school, hence, they are very important as they motivate students to study and review more often. Students work harder in learning their subjects when they know that they will be tested and feel proud when they pass. Those who do well in their tests are generally admired by their peers and are given recognition by their schools. As a result, this improves the students' level of self-esteem. Learning is a major goal of students at school. The only way to measure the students' level of learning is through graded achievement and tests. Therefore, it is every student's goal to achieve high scores in their tests.
In the case provided, Mr. Fitzer teaches John that hard work could make him achieve his goals. Getting good results through hard work helps students associate their personal efforts with rewards. Conversely, if they fail, it shows them that there is a consequence in taking things for granted. Anxiety is the most common negative effect of achievement tests. Failure can bring shame and embarrassment to the student, especially if parents and teachers have high expectations. Therefore, many students are afraid of failing their tests. Some even report physical symptoms such cold sweats, headaches and increased heart rates before their exams. Not all children learn at the same pace and in the same way, so as a result some students fail or receive a low score on standardized aptitude and achievement tests. This could have made john frustrated, especially if he thought that he worked hard to prepare himself for the test. As a result, he looses his enthusiasm for learning and this gives him low self esteem that could possibly lead to so many problems such as misbehavior in class or becoming socially withdrawn.
Question 2
The four ways of interpreting behavior are as follows: First is the experiential or the hear- say concept. This entails the knowledge created by a conscious being, fully aware of and grounded in the immediacy of the direct sensory environment, while mindful of the duality of our mental imagery and the real world. The second is the presentational which is also called the see- say concept. Here knowledge generated by and communicated through a variety of richly imagined artistry. This is Knowledge as metaphor as described in the Mythos versus Logos dialogue. The next is the propositional which is described as formal theoretical, conceptual knowledge, encoded in language. This is otherwise called the hear-write concept. These characterize the dominant prepositional and modern knowledge based on logical positivism and Cartesian duality, expressing concerns in a way that serves to separate the subjective from objective. They allude to a causal argument that leads from language to subject/object dichotomy to man-made ecological disaster to highlight a problem of taking un tempered formal propositional knowledge to extremes. Finally is the practical which is knowledge in action that has consequences which can be compared to alternatives and then valued by human judgment. Therefore, such knowledge is basically termed as the see-write and concept and given support by a community of practice and a body of knowledge.
Question 3
The three characteristics of a good and effective testing program include: the process of developing the curriculum, the contents of the curriculum and the ways of implementing the curriculum. All these must be designed appropriately to achieve maximum results. The three ways of data analysis and collection an class are: Observation which involves the clear contact with the students, interviews conducted through asking the students several questions and the use of group works.Effective reading comprehension requires not only accurate reading skills but also automatic and fluent reading ability. Many struggling readers have difficulty moving to a level of automaticity and fluency that allows them to easily comprehend what they are reading. Research in the area of developing accurate decoding has consistently indicated that a systematic code based approach is important for teaching beginning reading skills. The best techniques for developing fluency, however, have not yet been clearly established. The suggestions here are based on clinical experience and more systematic research is needed to determine which methods or their components will be the most efficient. Not only do good readers read fluently with adequate speed, but when they read aloud, they also use appropriate phrasing, intonation and their spoken language. The reading process involves two separate but highly interrelated areas - word identification and comprehension. It is well established that difficulties in automatic word recognition significantly affect a reader's ability to effectively comprehend what they are reading. Even mild difficulties in word identification can pull attention away from the underlying meaning, reduce the speed of reading, and create the need to reread selections to grasp the meaning.
Question 4