James Joyce's “Araby and John Updike's `A&P'

Visit each of the menu links on the EC OWL “Essay Zone” Resources site: http://www(dot)mydistancecourses(dot)org/owl/mod/resource/view.php?id=411 “Essay Formats” “Compare & Contrast Essays” “Essay Techniques” “Cause & Effect Essays” links: “Essay Techniques” “Think before you Begin” “What does it look like?” In no fewer than 500 words, compare or contrast at least two (2) significant literary elements from each of the stories you read for this module, discussing how those elements contribute to each story’s theme. As you have been doing, you should think about the characters, how they move the story forward, or how their setting in time and place affects their actions, never forgetting that these are fictional characters constructed by an author.

Rhetorical Styles

Most essays contain more than one rhetorical (type of essay) style.  As a matter of fact, when you write a particular essay style, you, too, may use various rhetorical techniques.  However, my point is not to confuse you, but rather, to prevent future confusion.  Please read on.

• All essays follow the same basic paragraph structure.
• Most essays contain more than one rhetorical style.
• However, many essays favor one particular rhetorical style.

Once you learn the various rhetorical styles and learn how to identify them in an essay, you may discover different styles while reading an essay.  This may be the case even if you are reading an essay in a textbook that has placed the essay under a chapter heading titled, “Classification and Division Essay.”

• Main style (Classification and Division)
• Other styles (Illustration, Cause and Effect, Narration, etc.)

Therefore, rather than deem an essay as purely a “Classification and Division Essay,” it would be best to think of it as the essay’s main rhetorical style.  An essay that discusses the various means of taking courses may give examples of how each student would manage his or her time while taking a specific course. 

The writer may use the Illustration rhetorical style to give examples of time management techniques in one of the paragraphs in the Classification and Division Essay.  However, if for the most part, the essay categorizes the various means of taking courses, the essay would be called a Classification and Division essay—even though the Illustration rhetorical style is present.

One skill that may help you in determining and deciphering essay styles is Active Reading.

Rhetorical Styles

Most essays contain more than one rhetorical (type of essay) style.  As a matter of fact, when you write a particular essay style, you, too, may use various rhetorical techniques.  However, my point is not to confuse you, but rather, to prevent future confusion.  Please read on.

• All essays follow the same basic paragraph structure.
• Most essays contain more than one rhetorical style.
• However, many essays favor one particular rhetorical style.

Once you learn the various rhetorical styles and learn how to identify them in an essay, you may discover different styles while reading an essay.  This may be the case even if you are reading an essay in a textbook that has placed the essay under a chapter heading titled, “Classification and Division Essay.”

• Main style (Classification and Division)
• Other styles (Illustration, Cause and Effect, Narration, etc.)

Therefore, rather than deem an essay as purely a “Classification and Division Essay,” it would be best to think of it as the essay’s main rhetorical style.  An essay that discusses the various means of taking courses may give examples of how each student would manage his or her time while taking a specific course. 

The writer may use the Illustration rhetorical style to give examples of time management techniques in one of the paragraphs in the Classification and Division Essay.  However, if for the most part, the essay categorizes the various means of taking courses, the essay would be called a Classification and Division essay—even though the Illustration rhetorical style is present.

One skill that may help you in determining and deciphering essay styles is Active Reading.

Classification and Division

A Classification and Division Essay is a rhetorical style that in essay format takes a whole and splits it up into parts and then places the divided information into various categories.

What is a Classification and Division Essay?

A Classification and Division Essay combines two different techniques.  First, you would divide a complex and difficult topic into subtopics for clarity and explanation purposes. Next, you would determine what categories are needed and what information fits into those categories.  Think of a newspaper.  All of the information is divided into different parts: news, advertisements, and classifieds.  Then the information is classified into different categories.  For example, news may be categorized as sports, international, local, lifestyle, etc.

Classification and Division Pitfall:

You have to be very clear in a Classification and Division essay.  Your reader needs to understand, how you came up with your categories and why information fits into these categories.  Therefore, be sure that you make the guidelines for your categories clear to the reader and that you do not merge, confuse, or have superficial categories.

Classification and Division Essay Techniques

• Take a complex topic and divide it
• Be sure that you have found a Principle of Classification (what the categories have in common)
• Make sure that your categories are distinct
• Make sure that your categories support your thesis

Your aim in a Classification and Division Essay is to help explain to your reader a complex topic. To do this, first you need to take the topic and divide it into more manageable parts or subtopics to help your reader comprehend the topic.

Once you have divided your topic, you need to decide on a Principle of Classification. What do these items have in common?  If you are picking a commonality that may not be very clear to the reader, be sure to take the time to explain your categories in detail and how each item fits.

While you may need to explain your choice of categories or Principle of Classification, avoid confusing the reader by using categories that overlap.  Make sure that each category is distinct. Your information will be clear to the reader, and you will have a much stronger essay.

Lastly, make sure that your categories support your thesis.  If you find that they don’t, adjust your thesis to accommodate the change.

Think Before You Begin

Topic Selection:

If you have not been given a topic, select one that you can divide and put into specific categories. The topic must be broad or complex enough so that it can be easily divided into categories.  As for classifying information, make sure that you will be able to flesh out your categories and that you are not facing a topic that has too many categories.

Writing for Your Audience:

Does your division help the audience understand your topic better?  Are your categories well-thought out, and is it clear to the reader how and why the information fits into each category?  

Prewriting Techniques:

Which Prewriting Techniques may help you write your essay?  Do you want to use a prewriting technique to write your essay, or do you want to start with a rough draft? Graphic Organizers and Outlines may help you  divide your topic and classify your information.

Classification and Division in a Nutshell

When you write a Classification and Division Essay, you may get confused when you think about how you are going to take the broad topic and divide it and then place it into specific categories.  However, if you take one step at a time, you will be able to follow the process.  Remember to divide your complex or broad idea into more manageable parts.  Then analyze the information and decide which Principles of Classification would apply to each category.  Be sure that your categories are lucid, concise, and distinct. Lastly, be sure it is clear to the reader why the information fits into any specific category.

Cause and Effect

A Cause and Effect Essay is a rhetorical style that discusses which events lead to specific results.

What is a Cause and Effect Essay?

A Cause and Effect Essay is structured around the goal of discovering and discussing events that lead to certain results.  When writing a Cause and Effect Essay, you should be sure that you have researched the specific causes and are confident that you are demonstrating why they lead to particular results.  You may either concentrate on all causes, effects or a combination of both.

Cause and Effect Pitfall: 

It is important to remember that just because an event occurs before an effect does not mean that they are related.  You may be mistaking chronological order for causality (to be discussed further).

Cause and Effect Essay Techniques

Your essay may discuss only the causes, the results, or both the causes and results. Once you have decided if you are going to focus on causes, effects or both, you need to keep the following in mind.

• You need to research the events and search for many causes to be sure that you are only stating the obvious.
• Be aware that just because something occurs before something else it does not mean there is a cause and effect relationship.
• Once you are positive of a cause, you should follow chronological sequencing.
• There can be an immediate cause and a remote cause of an effect.
• If there is one, discuss a causal chain (one event leads to another that leads to another).

When writing a Cause and Effect essay, take the time to research the causes.  Do not select the obvious cause without first doing substantial research to be sure that you are not missing any other causes.

When you confuse event sequencing for causality, you are engaging in Post Hoc Reasoning.  A simple way to understand Post Hoc Reasoning is to think about superstitions. For example, if you wore a new sweater the day you aced your exam, you may decide to wear that sweater every time you take an exam.  You may believe that the sweater led you to ace the exam, but a causal relationship has not been established.  The chronology is you wore the sweater and did well on the exam.  However, you cannot prove that you did well on the exam because of the sweater.

Once you are sure that a causal relationship has been established, you should list the definite causes in sequential (chronological) order.  When you explain to your reader which event happened before another, you help him or her better understand the causes and effects.

The immediate cause of an event is usually the easiest to find.  However, there may be many causes that have occurred back in time or at a distance.  You should try to include remote causes in your essay to help the reader understand the importance of all the causes.

A causal chain can help you organize your essay and explain your thesis.  If you have done the appropriate research and have found causality among events, you can see whether a causal chain has developed.  A causal chain occurs when one event leads to a result and that result leads to another result.  Be sure that you do not leave out any of the events in the chain and be sure that you are following proper sequencing.

For a variety of easy to print graphic organizers that will help you organize your cause and effect essay, go to the following link at Education Oasis http://www(dot)educationoasis(dot)com/curriculum/GO/cause_effect.htm

You can click on any of the 11 charts and print a copy or save one to your desktop.

Think Before You Begin

Topic Selection:

If you have not been given a topic, select one you are able to verify with sources. While a conspiracy theory may seem an interesting idea, and you can demonstrate a cause and effect relationship in your essay, it may not be the best choice.   Pick a topic that you can clearly demonstrate that the effects are based on specific causes.

Writing for Your Audience:

Are you explaining how the causes lead to certain results? Are you assuming too much knowledge on the part of your audience?  Are you writing for your peers or for the general public? Are causal chains explained clearly?

Prewriting Techniques:

Which Prewriting Techniques may help you write your essay?  Do you want to use a prewriting technique to write your essay, or do you want to start with a rough draft? Graphic Organizers can help you determine and organize causal events.

Cause and Effect in a Nutshell

When you write a Cause and Effect Essay, you are discussing events that lead to certain results. You must do proper research to be sure that you are not stating obvious causes.  In your research, you may find remote causes or a causal chain.  Use these causes to strengthen your essay.  Remember to avoid confusing time sequencing with causality.  Just because something occurs before something else, does not mean it is the cause.  You might be engaging in Post Hoc Reasoning.

Compare and Contrast

A Compare and Contrast Essay is a rhetorical style that discusses the similarities and differences of two or more things: ideas, concepts, items, places, etc.

What is a Compare and Contrast Essay?

A Compare and Contrast Essay does two things: it discusses the similarities and differences of at least two different things. First, you must find a basis of comparison to be sure that the two things have enough in common.  After that, you identify their differences.  You may structure the Compare and Contrast Essay using either  the alternating method (stating one aspect of one thing and immediately discussing the same aspect of the other item and how they are similar or different) or the block method (discussing all of the aspects of one thing and then discussing all of the aspects of another).

Compare and Contrast Pitfall:

When you write a Compare and Contrast Essay, be sure that the two things have enough in common.  Otherwise, you will have a difficult time writing your essay.

Compare and Contrast Essay Techniques

Once you have decided what things to compare, keep the following in mind.

• Basis of Comparison
• Alternating Method
• Block Method
• Combination Method

In order for your essay to be a success, you need to have a basis of comparison about the things that you are comparing.  Do the things have enough in common for it to make sense to write about them in a Compare and Contrast Essay?  For example, it would make sense to compare in person and online courses because the two have enough in common to justify discussing the similarities and differences of the two types of courses.

When you use the Alternating Method, you discuss one aspect of the first item and then immediately discuss the same aspect of the second item.  You may discuss the amount of computer time required for an in person course and an online course.  You may state that while you need to work on the computer for both courses, you would need to spend twice as much time on the computer for the online course.

When you use the Block Method, you discuss one subject and then discuss the next subject. Usually, you would write one paragraph discussing the first subject and then write a second paragraph discussing the second subject and so on. For example, you may decide to discuss the costs associated with taking an online course.  You may emphasize that while a person is getting the same education, he or she is saving by not having to drive to the college.  In the next paragraph, you may discuss the costs associated with an in person course: gas, parking permits, babysitting, etc.

Finally, when you combine the two, you are writing a Compare and Contrast Essay that follows the Combination Method.  You may spend a couple of body paragraphs using the Alternating Method and then decide to switch to the Block Method for a deeper analysis of each of the subjects.

Think Before You Begin

Topic Selection:

If you have not been given a topic, select two things that have a basis of comparison. This is essential because if the items have too little in common, you will not have a successful essay.

Writing for Your Audience:

Is your audience familiar with what you are comparing and contrasting?  Have you made your basis of comparison clear to the reader? Are you providing the reader with a new approach or knowledge about your topic? Try to introduce new ways of looking at your items in order to give your reader a fresh outlook about what you are discussing.

Prewriting Techniques:

Which Prewriting Techniques may help you write your essay?  Do you want to use a prewriting technique to write your essay, or do you want to start with a rough draft? Brainstorms are great for deciding how the two things differ, and you may use a Graphic Organizer to help decide if there is a basis of comparison.

Compare and Contrast in a Nutshell

When you decide to compare (similarities) and contrast (differences) two things, you need to be sure that there is a basis of comparison.  The two things must have enough in common (basis of comparison) to address them in an essay. If not, you will be wasting time trying to convince the reader that the items should be compared.  Once you have decided the two things to be discussed, you must decide which method (Alternating, Block, or Combination) would suit your essay.

Definition

A Definition Essay is a rhetorical style that uses various techniques to impress upon the reader the meaning of a term, idea or concept.

What is a Definition Essay?

A Definition Essay is structured around the goal of defining a term, concept, or idea.  While you may start off with a simple dictionary definition, your essay will, ultimately, contain an extended definition.  There are many techniques you can use to extend a definition in a Definition Essay (to be discussed further). 

Definition Pitfall:

A common pitfall in writing a Definition Essay is assuming your reader knows the Connotation (to be discussed further) of a specific word.

Definition Essay Techniques

Denotation: Providing the literal or dictionary definition of a term

Online Class: A course that is taught over the Internet.

Connotation: Illustrating the implied meaning

Class Act:  A person who is considerate of others.

Enumeration: Employing a list to define

Nontraditional Student:

• A person who did not complete college directly out of high school
• A person who took an alternative path to college
• A person who may be older than traditional students (17-23 years old)
• A person who brings various life experiences to the classroom

Analogy: Implementing a comparison of two things that are similar

Discussion Board Posts: Think of Discussion Board posts in an online class as your class discussion.  In both cases, you share ideas, thoughts, and insights in a learning environment.

Negation: Defining something by stating what it is not

Non-Credit Course: A course in which you do not receive college credit.

Think Before You Begin

Topic Selection:

If you are have not been given a topic, select one that you are familiar with and comfortable writing about.  Think about how you will use the above techniques when deciding what to define in your essay.

Writing for Your Audience:

Are you writing a technical essay?  Are you writing for your peers? Does your audience have prior knowledge on the topic? Are you writing to a certain group?

Prewriting Techniques:

Which Prewriting Techniques may help you write your essay?  Do you want to use a prewriting technique to write your essay, or do you want to start with a rough draft? Brainstorms may help you think of various connotations of a word, term, or concept.

Definition Essay in a Nutshell

When you write a Definition Essay, you use various techniques (denotation, connotation, enumeration, analogy, and negation) to extend the definition of the term, concept, or idea that you are defining in your essay.  It is important to keep your audience in mind and to think about how much or little your readers know about who or what you are defining.

Descriptive

A Descriptive Essay rhetorical style that uses the five senses (touch, taste, sight, sound, smell) and other details to provide the reader with a vivid idea or picture of what is being represented.

What is a Description Essay?

A Descriptive Essay can be compared to a piece of artwork; the goal of the essay is to give enough details (often through the senses) to provide the reader with a “picture” of what is being discussed.  

Description Pitfall:

Sometimes, students rely too much on the sense of sight and neglect the other senses in a Description Essay.  Also, students often tell by explaining, rather than show, through details, what is being described (to be discussed further).

Descriptive Essay Techniques

• Once you have decided on a topic, please keep the following in mind
• Use the five senses in your essay
• Show rather than tell
• Use active not passive sentence construction
• Include enough detail

Keep in mind that you want to include as much sensory detail as possible (and as appropriate) in your essay.  Most of the time, students rely too heavily on the senses of sight and hearing, so be sure that you include the other three senses (taste, touch, smell) as well.

Imagine that you are painting a vivid picture with words.  You don’t want to tell the reader what you witnessed. Instead, you want to provide the reader with enough details so that he or she will get as close to the experience as possible.  For example, you may like to have popcorn while you study.  When you are only telling, you would write: “I love the taste of popcorn.”  When you are showing, you would write:  “Buttery, fluffy kernels of salty, sweet fresh popcorn melt in my mouth as I read about proper comma usage.”

If you use active sentence construction, you will be much closer to achieving the “show do not tell” advice.  Passive construction would be: “The popcorn was made so that there would be a snack there for the study session I was having because of a lot of homework. Active construction would be:  “I always make popcorn right before I study so that I have a delicious snack to get me through the pile of homework.”

Be sure to include enough detail to avoid bland descriptions.  The following are bland descriptions: "The popcorn was good."  "I have a lot of homework." "I'd rather fly a kite."  The following are vivid descriptions:  "The popcorn tastes like fresh corn picked at its peak of sweetness and slathered in delicious creamy butter." "The mound of homework has warped my coffee table as it moans under the weight of elephant sized text books."  "I ache for the salt wind swirling in my hair as it takes the rainbow colored kite on a visit to the sun."   But be wary of too much detail:  "The fluffy, white, round microwave popcorn tasted like fresh, yellow, corn on the cob from the farm that was picked by farmers at the ultimate peak of sweetness and slathered in delicious, cold, creamy, yellow-colored stick butter."

Think Before You Begin

Topic Selection:

If you have not been given a topic, select one you know very well and can connect to by using your senses. Make sure that you can show the reader what you are describing so that he or she may actively experience it rather than just being told about it.

Writing for Your Audience:

Are you describing a place they are familiar with?  Can your readers identify with the sensory details you are providing? Are you able to paint a picture with words for your audience? Are you overwhelming them with too much detail?

Prewriting Techniques:

Which Prewriting Techniques may help you write your essay?  Do you want to use a prewriting technique to write your essay, or do you want to start with a rough draft? Brainstorming may help you identify the five different senses, which you can then use as headings.

Description in a Nutshell  

When writing the Description Essay, keep in mind that you should use sensory details (taste, touch, smell, sight, sound) to make your essay come alive to the reader.  Avoid the trap of telling rather than showing.  Do not tell your reader about your experience; allow the reader to experience it for himself or herself.  However, while details are important, too many details will confuse the reader and lead to ineffective sentences. Lastly, be sure that you write active sentences so that the reader does not get bogged down with passive sentences.

Illustration

An Illustration Essay is a rhetorical style that uses examples to support the thesis of the essay.

What is an Illustration Essay?

An Illustration Essay is structured around the goal of using examples to make a point in an essay. You may use various examples to support your essay, but you must make sure that your examples are relevant, strong, and properly used. 

Illustration Pitfall:

You may find that when you are writing about your examples you wind up with very choppy paragraphs.  To avoid this, combine examples that are related and relevant to one another.

Illustration Essay Techniques

The Illustration essay is also known as an Exemplification Essay. Once you have gathered enough examples to support your thesis, keep the following in mind.

• You should only choose examples that are relevant (support your thesis),
• You should arrange your examples chronologically.
• You should arrange your examples by order of importance.
• You should start with simple examples and build up to more complex examples.

If you stray from your thesis by using examples that are not connected to your essay, you will lose your reader. Therefore, if the connection is not immediately clear, be sure to point that out to your reader before you go on a tangent.

When you list your examples, you may list what occurs first in a time sequence.  This helps to keep your essay organized and gives the reader a preset pattern to follow.

Essentially, it is up to you how you arrange your examples in regard to importance. You may begin with the most important to catch the reader’s interest immediately. However, if your technique is to leave the reader with a lasting impression, you may leave the most important example for last.

Whichever choice you make, it is important to start with simple examples.  This way, you provide the reader with a foundation of examples, which helps him or her comprehend the more complex examples.

Think Before You Begin

Topic Selection:

If you have not been given a topic, select one that you can come up with sufficient examples to support your thesis. You are convincing your reader of your thesis, so do not choose weak examples.

Writing for Your Audience:

Will your audience believe your examples support your thesis?  Are you writing for your peers? If you are using an example in a unique way, will your audience accept this example as being relevant?

Prewriting Techniques:

Which Prewriting Techniques may help you write your essay?  Do you want to use a prewriting technique to write your essay, or do you want to start with a rough draft? Brainstorms will help you to come up with various examples.

Illustration in a Nutshell

When you write an Illustration Essay, you are using examples to make a point. These examples must be strong, relevant, and clear.  The examples must make sense to your reader, and you must avoid confusing the reader by just listing examples without taking the time to explain the importance of each of them.  Organization is very important in an Illustration Essay, and you may use one of these techniques to organize your essay: listing in chronological order, listing in order of importance, or listing from the simple to the complex.

Narration

A Narration Essay is a rhetorical style that tells a story.

What is a Narration Essay?

A Narration Essay is structured around the goal of recounting a story. Most of the time, students write Narration Essays that discuss personal stories; however, you may be asked to tell a story about another person’s experience or an event.

Narration Pitfall:

Remember, that you are writing an essay, and thus, you must have a strong Introduction, Thesis Statement, and Conclusion.

Narration Essay Techniques

Begin with the Story:  Sometimes, it is easier for students to write the story and then go back and make sure that the essay follows the proper essay format.

Essay Format: After you have completed your story, read it to yourself.  Is there any particular moral or idea that the story is demonstrating?  If so, you may decide to use that idea in your thesis statement.

Topic: Going Back to School

1. Write the story (this will become your body paragraphs)
2. Read aloud and see if there is a moral or underlying idea
3. Write your thesis statement based on that idea or moral
4. Continue to write your Introduction

Example: When you read your paragraphs about going back to school, you realize how much having a college education will improve your financial situation.

Thesis: After careful consideration, I have decided that returning to school is an important step toward improving my financial outlook.

Think Before You Begin

Topic Selection:

If you have not been given a topic, select one that you are comfortable sharing with your professor and, possibly, the class. Be sure to select a topic that can be fully discussed within the confines of the essay’s assigned length.

Writing for Your Audience:

Are you writing a personal story?  Are you writing for your peers? Have they had a similar experience? Are you comfortable sharing your story?

Prewriting Techniques:

Which Prewriting Techniques may help you write your essay?  Do you want to use a prewriting technique to write your essay, or do you want to start with a rough draft? Outlines may help you avoid the Narration pitfall of only telling a story and not following the essay format.

Narration in a Nutshell

When you write a Narration Essay, you are usually telling a story. It is important to keep in mind the essay format and be sure that you have a strong Introduction, Thesis Statement, and Conclusion.  You are not simply telling a story from beginning to end, but rather, you are writing an essay with an Introduction, a Body, and a Conclusion.

Process

A Process Essay is a rhetorical style that provides step by step directions or guidance.

What is a Process Essay?

A Process Essay is structured around the goal of providing the reader with directions or guidance. Most of the time, students write Process Essays that discuss how to do something. Process Essays are the recipes or technical brochures of essay writing.  

Process Pitfall:

It is essential to keep the sequence of steps in mind.  When writing a Process Essay, you should not skip steps or attempt to go back and explain something.  You must follow strict chronological order when giving directions

Process Essay Techniques

• Create a List of Directions or Steps
• Make Sure You Are Not Missing Steps or Directions
• Organize Your Steps
• Do Not Confuse Your Reader
• Keep the Reader Interested

When writing a Process Essay, you need to first list the directions or steps. Remember that you are telling your reader how to do something.  While you do not want to over explain the process, you want to be sure that you are giving the reader every step or direction he or she needs to be successful.  Success can be determined either by the reader being able to achieve the desired results by following your directions or having a greater understanding of the process after reading your essay.

It is essential not to miss any of the directions or steps.  Take some time away from your list of steps and revisit it with fresh eyes to be sure that you did not miss anything.  Remember, you already know how to do the thing you are explaining and may make assumptions that the reader may know something about the process he or she does not. However, you must balance this idea with the concept that you do not want to over explain to and, thus, insult the reader.

After you have listed your steps, you have to decide if you need to follow chronological (time sequencing) order, address the simple to the complex, or discuss the known to the unknown.

Remember, do not confuse your reader.  Do not bog him or her down with unnecessary information, but be sure that you are providing all of the steps. Never backtrack and discuss missed steps because this will only frustrate or confuse your reader.

Lastly, keep your reader interested.  You are writing an essay and not a manual —show some personality and catch your reader’s interest.

Think Before You Begin

Topic Selection:

If you have not been given a topic, select one that you know a lot about. Keep in mind that you need to provide all of the directions necessary so be sure to do a Brainstorm or Outline to help you do so.

Writing for Your Audience:

Does your audience have any previous knowledge?  Can you assume your audience already has certain skills? How much direction do you need to provide?

Prewriting Techniques:

Which Prewriting Techniques may help you write your essay?  Do you want to use a prewriting technique to write your essay, or do you want to start with a rough draft? Outlines and Brainstorms are particularly helpful when you want to be sure that you are not missing any steps or directions.

Process in a Nutshell

When you write a Process Essay, you are providing directions or steps. You not only want to be sure that you do not miss any important steps or directions, but also that you do not over explain.  You must provide all the steps in the process because you cannot go back to discuss any missed steps. You must decide whether to follow a chronological order, address the simple to the complex, or discuss the known to the unknown.