Neurobiology of Addiction, Somatic Symptom Disorder, Schizophrenia, and ASD

Psychopathology Final
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Psychopathology Final
Answer 1
Keith Klostermann and Michelle Kelley define addiction as being characterized by three primary components, namely compulsion, preoccupation, and relapse. The neurobiology of addiction focuses on identifying various neuroadaptive mechanisms within particular brain circuits, which mediate the transition from controlled and infrequent drug use to addiction (Klostermann & Kelley, 2015). The primary neurochemical process that underlies addiction is how drugs become reinforcing to users. In most cases, many drugs exert reinforcing effects on the dopamine neurotransmission system. Other addiction pathways include serotonin, gamma-aminobutyric acid, and an opioid peptide. The neurobiology of addiction portrays that the four main circuits that are responsible for addiction and drug abuse are the reward, which is in the ventral pallidum, and the nucleus accumbens (Klostermann & Kelley, 2015). The second circuit is the motivation that is in the subcallosal cortex and orbitofrontal cortex. The third circuit is the control that is in the anterior cingulate gyrus and prefrontal cortex. The fourth circuit is learning and memory in the hippocampus and amygdala. On the contrary, the sociocultural views of chemical dependency refer to the clinical diagnosis of addiction that is derived from societal norms. As such, they differ based on where and when the diagnosis is made. Addiction or drug-taking behaviors are considered as those behaviors that deviate from the socially accepted standards. The two primary things that determine whether a person is an addict are idiosyncratic viewpoints and culture (Klostermann & Kelley, 2015). In particular, addiction symptoms are culturally derived and based on a commonly held set of cultural beliefs about acceptable drug abuse. For example, in some cultures, drinking and driving, drug use in the morning, and drinking while working are considered addiction signs. In that light, the sociocultural views of chemical dependency involve beliefs by distinct groups of people. Both the neurobiology and sociocultural views of addiction depict that chemical dependency occurs when people misuse drugs beyond a specific threshold, which is determined by culture, societal norms, and brain circuits. Furthermore, individuals’ behaviors are proper measures to know whether a person is a drug addict or not.
Reference
Klostermann, K., & Kelley, M. L. (2015). Substance-related and addictive disorders. In Maddux, J. E., & Winstead, B. A. (Eds.), Psychopathology: Foundations for a contemporary understanding (pp. 285-317) ProQuest Ebook Central.

Answer 2
Based on the DSM-5, somatic symptom disorders might not accompany the diagnosed medical disease. The diagnosis is usually determined by symptoms’ endorsement but not the absence of a clear medical explanation. Predominant pain or pain disorder and hypochondriasis are two diagnostic categories. When it comes to somatic symptom disorder with pain disorder, it involves persistent pain. In this case, persistence means that the pain is predominant and that it stays for a long duration. In contrast, somatic symptom disorder with hypochondriasis as diagnosis means that the patients’ problems are not actual and that they are just things in their heads. Specifically, hypochondriasis is described as a condition where an individual worries excessively about having severe disease. In other words, hypochondriasis is known as an illness anxiety disorder that is characterized by an individual’s preoccupation with having a serious illness that is accompanied by anxiety about the disease and one’s health (Zvolensky, Eifert, & Garey, 2015). In this case, if somatic symptoms are present, they are mild in intensity. As such, patients seek reassurance frequently, avoid disease-related symptoms, and check their bodies regularly to guarantee themselves that they do not have somatic symptom disorder. Specifically, a clinician might distinguish between somatic symptom disorders with hypochondriasis versus predominant pain using the DSM-5. Pain disorder occurs when the patient has been in pain for an extended duration. On that note, clinicians can tell their patients to rate their degree of pain using a scale. On the contrary, hypochondriasis can be determined if the patient is worried about having somatic symptom disorders but does not portray any sign of the disease. However, some people show mild symptoms of the illness. The primary things that distinguish predominant paint from hypochondriasis are excessive pain in long duration and the illness anxiety disorder (Zvolensky, Eifert, & Garey, 2015). In most cases, hypochondriasis involves patients overthinking that they have the disease, which might cause distressing or maladaptive thoughts, behaviors, or feelings that can interfere with a person’s daily life functionalities.
Reference
Zvolensky, M. J., Eifert, G. H., & Garey, L. (2015). Somatic symptoms and related disorders. In Maddux, J. E., & Winstead, B. A. (Eds.), Psychopathology: Foundations for a contemporary understanding (pp. 284-297) ProQuest Ebook Central.

Answer 3
Schizophrenia is a debilitating mental disease that is usually diagnosed in individuals between 20 and 25 years. DSM-5 shows the diagnosis that distinguishes schizophrenia from psychotic features. For an individual to be classified as schizophrenic, one must exhibit two of the signs among disorganized speech, delusions, grossly catatonic or disorganized behavior, hallucinations, and negative symptoms (Mittal et al., 2015). The signs must be core positive. Most importantly, the symptoms must persist for over six months. Schizoaffective disorder is a category of DSM-5, which is considered as the hybrid between schizophrenia and mood disorders. The two primary subtypes of schizoaffective disorder are bipo...