Blood and circulation

Pathophysiology Student’s Name Institution of Affiliation Course Date 1 Review the normal anatomy and physiology of the circulatory system. The circulatory system transports oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and wastes throughout the body with the aid of the heart, blood vessels, and blood. The heart is a muscular organ that pumps oxygenated blood from the left ventricle toward the body through the arteries and deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the lungs through the pulmonary artery. Blood vessels can be any of the arteries, veins, or capillaries. Blood rich in oxygen is carried in the arteries, and oxygen-poor blood is delivered to the heart in the veins. Nutrient and gas exchange is provided through capillaries. 2 Review the normal components of the blood and know each of their functions. Blood is comprised of Plasma, Red Blood Cells (RBC), White Blood Cells (WBC), and Platelets. Water, electrolytes, proteins, hormones, and waste products constitute the plasma, which is part of the liquid system that transfers important substances. RBCs have hemoglobin, which ferries oxygen to the tissues and removes carbon dioxide. WBCs are part of the immune system and defend against infection by types: neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils, and basophils. 3 Describe the lifecycle of a blood cell. Hematopoietic stem cells become red blood cells, white blood cells, or platelets in bone marrow. Erythropoiesis develops red blood cells (RBCs) in about 7 days, the process affected by erythropoietin from the kidney. RBCs are mature and lack nuclei, then they circulate for about 120 days before being destroyed in the spleen or liver. Various types of leukocytes vary in lifespan from hours to years, depending on their requirements and types. Megakaryocytes are the source of platelets, and whereas they live for about 7–10 days, platelets only live for about a day. During their life, these cells do many essential things, including transporting oxygen (RBCs), supporting the immune system (WBCs), and creating clots (platelets) to keep the body up and running. 4 What is included in the breakdown of hemoglobin? When a red blood cell outlives itself, it goes to the liver and spleen and is broken down. Heme and globin are the products of the breakdown of hemoglobin. The globin portion is subsequently digested into amino acids and recycled to synthesize proteins. Enzymatically, heme is converted to biliverdin and then to bilirubin, an essentially yellow pigment, and transported to the liver, excreted in bile. Heme is released to iron, stored as ferritin, or transported to new red blood cell production as transferrin. The intestines and the urine excrete bilirubin that is in excess. 5 What is the process of hemostasis? This is a process of preventing excessive blood loss after the injury of a vessel. The phases include vascular spasm, platelet plug formation, and coagulation (Vilahur & Fuster, 2025). Blood vessels restrict (vascular spasm) initially to minimize blood flow. These platelets then stick to the damaged site and release chemicals to recruit even more platelets to form a temporary plug. The coagulation phase involves a cascade triggered by the clotting factor converting fibrinogen to fibrin, which results in a stable clot. After healing occurs, the clot is dissolved by fibrinolysis. 6 What is the process of blood clotting? Coagulation is a complicated process that prevents bleeding too much. The injury to a blood vessel triggers the release of factors to form the clot. The intrinsic and extrinsic processes then activate factor X to convert prothrombin (which, along with calcium and other cofactors, can become thrombin). The fibrinogen is converted to fibrin by thrombin, and the fibrin cause a stable clot. The platelets strengthen the clot by becoming a mesh network inside. 7 Describe the process of fibrinolysis. After vessel healing, fibrinolysis is where blood clots are broken down to return to normal circulation. The breakdown of the clots involves an enzyme, plasmin, that dissolves fibrin, the structural protein in clots. Plasmin is from plasminogen activated by tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) and urokinase. Plasmin is degraded fibrin into soluble fragments which are cleared from the plasma. This helps in preventing excessive clotting and thrombosis and allows adequate blood flow. Fibrinolysis, including plasminogen activator inhibitors, is under regulatory control to prevent excessive bleeding. Maintaining vascular integrity and preventing complications such as deep vein thrombosis and stroke is essential for fibrinolysis. 8 What are the different types of blood types? What does Rh mean? Which blood can each type receive? Depending on red blood cell and plasma antibodies, there are four blood types and the presence or absence of A and B antigens on red blood cells. Four significant types exist: A, B, AB, and O. The Rh factor refers to the presence (Rh-positive) or absence (Rh-negative) of the Rh antigen. A can receive A and O blood, B and O, and AB (universal) can receive A, B, and O blood; O (universal donor) can only receive O blood. Rh+ and Rh-blood are safe to give both Rh+ and Rh-− individuals and Rh-negative individuals need only to receive Rh− -blood so they will not get immune reactions. 9 What characteristics do all anemias share? The feature of diminished oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood in all anemias results from a decrease in either the red blood cells (RBCs) or hemoglobin content. It inevitably leads to tissue hypoxia, which interrupts normal body function. Blood loss, diminished RBC production, and elevated RBC destruction can lead to anemia. The common causes include nutritional deficiency (iron, vitamin B16, folate), chronic diseases, bone marrow disorders, and genetic conditions that cause sickle cell disease. 10 What signs and symptoms are the same with all anemias? Every type of anemia leads to the same tissue oxygen deficiency signs that include fatigue, weakness, dizziness, and pallor, according to Gallagher (2022). The function of red blood cells diminishing causes fatigue and weakness and creates dizziness and pallor among patients. When oxygen levels decrease, patients experience breath shortness and rapid heart rate. The symptoms of anemia include cold extremities, head pain, and impaired cognitive abilities. Extremely low red blood cell levels lead to both chest discomfort and fainting episodes. Iron deficiency anemia (IDA) Describe It ...